Individual psychological characteristics of personality. Individual psychological characteristics of personality Individual psychological characteristics of personality

1. Godefroy J. What is psychology: In 2 volumes - M., 1992.

2. Darwin Ch. Expression of emotions in humans and animals. M., 1991.

3. Nemov R.S. Psychology. -M., 1995. -T.1.

4. Simonov P.V. Emotional brain. -M., 1981.

5. Yakobson P.M. Psychology of feelings. -M., 1961.

6. Yakobson P.M. Psychology of emotions. -M., 1961.

Theme 6

1. The concept of temperament and its types.

2. The general concept of character and its nature.

3. Ability.

People largely differ from each other in that they react differently to all the events taking place in the world around them. Even in ancient times, scientists, observing the external features of people's behavior, drew attention to large individual differences in this regard. Some are very mobile, emotional, excitable, energetic. Others are slow, calm, imperturbable. Some are sociable, easily come into contact with others, cheerful, others are closed, secretive. These differences are largely due to human temperament. Temperament gives a purely individual coloring to all human activity and behavior. What is temperament and what are its properties?

Temperament- these are individual personality traits, manifested in the dynamics of the course of mental processes, general mobility and emotional excitability (congenital). Temperament in Latin means ratio, mixture.

There are three areas of manifestation of temperament: 1. General activity is determined by the intensity and volume of human interaction with the environment - physical and social. For this setting

a person can be inert, passive, calm, active.

2. Features of the motor sphere. It can be considered as particular expressions of the general activity. These include tempo, speed, rhythm, and total movement.

3. Emotionality is expressed in varying degrees of emotional excitability, in the speed of occurrence and strength of human emotions, in emotional sensibility.

Throughout the long history of study, temperament has always been associated with the organic, or physiological foundations of the body.

The roots of this physiological branch of the humoral doctrine of temperament go back to the ancient period. Hippocrates (5th century BC) described four types of temperament. He believed that there were four main fluids or juices in the human body: blood, mucus, yellow bile, and black bile. Mixing in each person in certain proportions, these fluids make up the temperament. Each temperament received a specific name from the name of the fluid that allegedly prevails in the body. Accordingly, the following types of temperament were distinguished:

A) sanguine(translated from Latin - blood);

b) choleric(in the lane with lat. - bile);

V) phlegmatic(in translation from Greek - mucus);

G) melancholic(in translation from Greek - black bile).

Hippocrates had a purely physiological approach to temperament. He did not connect it with the mental life of a person and even assumed the presence of temperament in individual organs, for example, in the heart or liver.

But over time, conclusions appeared about what mental properties a person should have in whose body this or that liquid predominates. As a result, there appeared psychological descriptions - portraits of different temperaments. The first such attempt also belongs to the ancient physician Galen (11th century BC). He identified thirteen temperaments, four of which are still in use today.

Later, in the 20th century, a constitutional theory of explaining the essence of temperament arose. Representatives of this theory, Ch. Lombroso, E. Kretschmer, W. Sheldon, believed that temperament is associated with physique, the constitution of a person. The main idea of ​​this theory is that the structure of the body determines the temperament, which is its function.

E. Kretschmer identified four constitutional types of people: leptosomatic, picnic, athletic and dysplastic.

Leptosomatic is characterized by a fragile physique, high growth, flat chest. The shoulders are narrow, the lower limbs are long and thin.

Athletic - a person with well-developed muscles, a strong physique, characterized by high or medium height, broad shoulders, narrow hips.

A picnic is a person with pronounced adipose tissue, excessively obese, characterized by small or medium stature, a swollen body with a large belly and a round head on a short neck.

Dysplastics are people with a shapeless, irregular body structure. Individuals of this type are characterized by various body deformities (for example, excessive growth, disproportionate physique).

With the first three types of body structure, E. Kretschmer correlated the three types of temperament identified and named by him: schizothymic, ixothymic and cyclothymic.

schizothymic, having an asthenic physique, closed, prone to fluctuations in emotions, stubborn, not very responsive to changing attitudes and views, with difficulty adapting to a new environment. Unlike him iksotimik, having an athletic physique, he manifests himself as a calm, unimpressive person with restrained gestures and facial expressions, with low flexibility of thinking, often petty. Picnic physique has cyclothymic, his emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness, he easily contacts people and is realistic in his views.

Barely emerging, constitutional concepts have become the object of sharp scientific criticism. The main drawback of this approach is that it underestimates, and sometimes simply ignores, the role of the environment and social conditions in the formation of the mental properties of the individual.

The following approach to explaining the essence of temperament connects the types of temperament with activity of the central nervous system. In the teachings of I.P. Pavlov on the influence of the central nervous system on the dynamic features of behavior, three main properties of the nervous system are distinguished: strength, balance, mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition. He considered the force of excitation and the force of inhibition to be two independent properties of the nervous system.

The strength of nervous processes characterizes the working capacity, endurance of the nervous system and means its ability to endure both prolonged and

short-term excitation or inhibition. The opposite property - weakness of nervous processes - is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. Under the action of very strong stimuli, nerve cells quickly pass into a state of protective inhibition. In a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But at the same time, a weak nervous system is highly sensitive: even to small stimuli, it gives an appropriate reaction.

The balance of nervous processes is the ratio of excitation and inhibition. In some people, these two processes are mutually balanced, while in others there is no balance: the process of excitation or inhibition predominates.

The mobility of nervous processes is their ability to quickly replace each other, the speed of movement of nervous processes, the speed of the appearance of a nervous process in response to irritation, the speed of the formation of new conditional connections.

Combinations of these properties of nervous processes formed the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity.

The type of higher nervous activity is a set of properties of the nervous system that make up the physiological basis of the individual originality of human activity.

Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the process of excitation and inhibition, four main types of GNI are distinguished:

1) strong, balanced, mobile - sanguine.

2) strong balanced, inert - phlegmatic.

3) strong, unbalanced - choleric.

4) weak - melancholic.

These types of the nervous system, not only in quantity, but also in basic characteristics, correspond to the four classical types of temperament.

In the 50s. in our country, laboratory studies of temperament were carried out under the guidance of B.M. Teplov, and then V.D. Nebylitsin, as a result of which the typology of I.P. Numerous techniques for studying the properties of the human nervous system were developed, two more properties of nervous processes were experimentally isolated and described: lability and dynamism.

The lability of the nervous system is manifested in the speed of occurrence and termination of nervous processes. The essence of the dynamism of nervous processes is the ease and speed of the formation of positive (dynamic stimulation - excitation) and inhibitory (dynamic inhibition) conditioned reflexes.

At present, science has a significant number of facts that allow us to give a fairly complete psychological description of the types of temperament. To compile the psychological characteristics of traditionally four psychotypes, the following main properties of temperament are usually distinguished:

- sensitivity- is determined by what is the smallest force of external influences necessary for the occurrence of this reaction;

- activity- testifies to how intensively (energetically) a person influences the outside world and overcomes obstacles in achieving goals (perseverance, focus, concentration of attention);

- the ratio of reactivity and activity - determines what a person's activity depends to a greater extent - on random external or internal circumstances (mood, random event) or on his goals, intentions, beliefs;

- plasticity and rigidity- indicate how easily and flexibly a person adapts to external influences (plasticity) or how inert and inert his behavior is (rigidity);

- reaction rate- characterizes the speed of various mental reactions, processes (the rate of speech, the dynamics of gestures, the speed of the human mind);

- extraversion - introversion - determines what the reactions and activities of a person mainly depend on - from external impressions that arise at the moment (extrovert - "directed outward") or from images, ideas and thoughts associated with internal experiences (introvert - "directed inward, towards myself");

- emotional excitability-characterized by the minimum impact necessary for the occurrence of an emotional reaction in a person, and the speed of its occurrence.

Each individual type of temperament has its own characteristic features:

Choleric- this is a person whose nervous system is determined by the predominance of excitation over inhibition. Therefore, he reacts very quickly to external influences, often thoughtlessly. Such a person is impatient, waiting can drive him crazy. He shows impulsiveness, sharpness of movements, unbridledness.

The strength of the nervous system allows the choleric person to work long and uncontrollably at critical moments. At this time, his ability to concretize forces is very high. However, the imbalance of his nervous processes predetermines a quick and abrupt change in his activity and vigor by depletion of the body's forces and lethargy. The alternation of positive and negative mood causes nervousness of behavior, its increased susceptibility to neurotic breakdowns and conflicts. Inconstancy is his characteristic feature: either he is too talkative - you can’t stop him, then you can’t get a word out of him. It is very difficult to predict how a choleric person will behave in a new environment.

Sanguine- a person with a strong, balanced, mobile nervous system. He has a fast reaction rate, his actions are deliberate. He is cheerful, thanks to which he is characterized by a high resistance to the difficulties of life. He loves a joke, often becomes the ringleader, the soul of the company. The mobility of the nervous system determines the variability of his feelings, attachments, interests, views, high adaptability to new conditions. This is a sociable person who easily comes into contact with new people, so he has a wide circle of acquaintances, although he does not differ in constancy in communication and affection. Sanguine ~ a productive person when he has a lot of interesting things to do, i.e. with constant excitement. IN

Otherwise, he becomes boring, lethargic, distracted. Easily switches from one job to another. In a stressful situation, he acts actively, maintains his composure.

Phlegmatic person- a person with a strong, balanced, but inert nervous system. As a result, he reacts slowly to external influences, and is taciturn. Emotionally balanced, it is difficult to anger him, cheer him up. The mood is stable, even. Even with serious troubles, the phlegmatic remains outwardly calm.

The phlegmatic person has a high capacity for work, resists strong and prolonged stimuli well, but is not able to respond quickly in unexpected difficult situations. He prefers to finish the job and only then take on another. He is a strategist and constantly checks his actions with the prospect. He remembers well everything he has learned. With difficulty refuses the developed skills and stereotypes, does not like to change habits, life schedule, work, friends. It is difficult and slow to adapt to new conditions. Often he hesitates for a long time when making a decision, but unlike the melancholic, he manages without outside help.

melancholic- a person with a weak nervous system, who has increased sensitivity even to weak stimuli, and a strong stimulus can cause a nervous breakdown, confusion. Therefore, in stressful situations (exam, competition, danger), the results of the melancholic's activities may deteriorate compared to a calm, familiar environment. Hypersensitivity leads to rapid fatigue and a drop in performance (quite a long rest is required). Even an insignificant occasion can cause resentment, tears. His mood is very changeable, but usually a melancholic tries not to show his feelings outwardly, does not talk about his experiences, although he is inclined to give himself up to them. Often he is sad, depressed, unsure of himself, anxious. He may develop neurotic disorders. Possessing a high sensitivity of the nervous system, melancholics often have pronounced artistic and intellectual abilities.

Temperament acts as a general basis for "many personal characteristics of a person and, above all, character. But temperament should not be confused with character, which is a combination of the most stable, essential personality traits. Character is manifested in a person's behavior, in his attitude to the world and people of the same temperament can be kind and cruel, lazy and hardworking, neat and slovenly.Temperament sets only the dynamics of mental response.

Such personality traits as impressionability, impulsiveness and anxiety depend on temperament.

The individual style of human activity is due to a certain combination of temperament properties, manifested in cognitive processes, actions, and communication. It is a system of dynamic features of activity dependent on temperament, which contains work methods that are typical for a given person.

The individual style of activity is not reduced only to temperament, it is also determined by other reasons and includes skills and habits formed under the influence of life experience. The individual style of activity can be considered as the result of the adaptation of the innate properties of the nervous system and the characteristics of the human body to the conditions of the activity performed. This device is designed to provide the best performance at the lowest cost to humans.

What we, when observing a person, perceive as signs of his temperament (various movements, reactions, forms of behavior) is often a reflection not so much of temperament as of an individual style of activity, the features of which may coincide and diverge from temperament.

The core of the individual style of activity determines the complex of properties of the nervous system that a person has. Among the features that relate to the individual style of activity, one can single out those that are acquired in experience and are compensatory in nature in relation to the shortcomings of the individual properties of the human nervous system, they contribute to the maximum use of the person's inclinations and abilities.

It should be noted that in a "pure" form, temperament is relatively rare. Usually, the traits of a certain temperament predominate in a person, but at the same time, individual traits characteristic of a different temperament are also observed.

It should also be taken into account that temperaments cannot be assessed as bad or good. Each temperament has its positive aspects, and on the basis of each temperament, with improper upbringing, negative manifestations of the personality can form.

What should be the strategy of the educator in relation to students of different types of temperament?

Choleric students should try to develop a lagging inhibitory process through training, to develop the ability to slow down themselves, their unwanted reactions. From these students it is necessary to constantly, gently, but persistently demand calm, thoughtful answers, calm, unsharp movements. It is necessary to systematically instill in such children restraint in behavior and relationships with peers and adults. Whereas enthusiasm in the process of work, energy and activity, the reasonable initiative of the choleric should be encouraged. Since the choleric person is often in an affective state, it is not recommended to speak with him in a sharp and raised tone, as this will only increase his arousal. The choleric person is better affected by an emphatically calm, quiet voice.

Melancholic students should be gradually weaned from excessive shyness and shyness, they should be given the opportunity to act more and be active. But at the same time, one should observe gradualness in working capacity training, remembering that these children quickly get tired. At the lesson, such students should be asked more often, creating a calm atmosphere during their answer (praise and approval play a big role in this). In children of the melancholic type, it is necessary to develop sociability.

Phlegmatic students need to form such qualities that they lack, such as greater mobility, activity. Do not allow them to show indifference to activities, lethargy, inertia. The teacher should try to form the attitude of such students to work at the lesson at a certain pace, as well as to stimulate their positive emotional attitude to learning activities.

Sanguine students need to cultivate perseverance, stable interests, a more serious attitude to the work begun, the ability to bring it to the end.

It is also important to take into account the fact that self-education of the personality plays a large role in mastering temperament - the conscious attitude of a person to eradicate negative manifestations of temperament and consolidate its positive aspects.

People have different attitudes towards the world around them. This attitude is expressed in the behavior, actions of a person. If a certain attitude to reality and the forms of behavior corresponding to it are not accidental for a particular person, but are more or less stable and constant, then they are properties of his personality.

The properties of a person, expressing the attitude to reality, form a kind of peculiar combination, which is not the sum of the individual features of a given person, but a single whole, which is called the character of a person.

The word "character" of Greek origin and in translation means "feature", "sign", "sign", "feature".

Character - this is an individual combination of essential personality traits that show a person’s attitude to the world around him and are expressed in his behavior. In other words, character is an attitude fixed in habitual forms of behavior.

According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov, habitual human behavior is a system of firmly entrenched responses to repeatedly repeated influences of the surrounding social environment. These biological and even genotypic properties of an individual, according to I.P. Pavlov, determine the temperament that forms the basis of character.

In the history of psychology, there are three points of view on the nature of character: according to some, it is hereditarily determined; others believe that it is entirely determined by the conditions of life; still others argue that character has both hereditary and acquired properties.

The first point of view is characterized by the biologization of character, the second - by sociologization, which reduces the role of the biological factor to a minimum. Both points of view, according to modern psychologists, are erroneous, because they do not correspond to reality. The point of view adopted in Russian psychology more realistically reflects the nature of character, according to which character is not innate, but features of the organization of the nervous system and genotype also affect its manifestations. According to Yu.B. Gippenreiter, it is necessary to consider certain properties of the organism as biological or genotypic prerequisites of character.

Thus, on the basis of an analysis of the problem of the "biological foundations of character," it can be concluded that the formation of character is determined both by the characteristics of the genotype and by the influence of the social environment.

The personality is very multifaceted. It is possible to single out separate sides or features in it that do not exist in isolation, separately from each other, but are mutually connected, forming an integral character structure.

To determine the structure or structure of the character of a person means to single out the main components or properties in the character. In the structure of character, researchers distinguish various properties.

B. G. Ananiev considers character to be an expression and a condition for the integrity of the personality. Its main properties include orientation, habits, communicative properties, emotional and dynamic manifestations, formed on the basis of temperament.

A.G. Kovalev, V.N. Myasishchev include in the character structure such pairs of properties as: balance - imbalance; sensitivity - aggressiveness; latitude - narrowness; depth - superficiality; wealth, richness - poverty; strength is weakness.

N.D. Levitov highlights the certainty of character, its integrity, complexity, dynamism, originality, strength, firmness.

Most researchers distinguish in the structure of the existing character, first of all, two sides: content and form. They are inseparable from each other and constitute an organic unity. Content character is the orientation of the personality, i.e. its material and spiritual needs, interests, ideals and social attitudes. The content of the character is manifested in the form of certain individual-peculiar relations that speak of the selective activity of a person. In different forms character expresses various ways of manifestation of relationships, temperament, fixed emotional and volitional characteristics of behavior.

In addition to the two sides noted above, in domestic psychology, in the structure of character, such individual personality traits are represented as intellectual, emotional and volitional. For this reason, researchers identify in the structure of character temperament, will, conviction, needs and interests, feelings, intellect.

Character is an inseparable whole. But it is impossible to study and understand such a complex whole as character without highlighting in it individual aspects or typical manifestations, the so-called , character trait. Character traits are understood as individual habitual forms of human behavior in which his attitude to reality is realized.

Character traits must be considered and evaluated in relation to each other. Each character trait acquires its own meaning, often completely different, depending on its relationship with other traits. For example, caution without a combination of decisiveness can make a person inactive.

In the character structure, two groups of traits are distinguished /

To the first group include features that express the orientation of the personality: stable needs, interests, inclinations, goals and ideals, as well as a person's worldview in relation to the surrounding reality. These traits are individually unique ways of manifesting the relationship of the individual to reality.

To the second group include intellectual, volitional and emotional character traits.

In the most general form, all character traits can be divided into basic, leading, setting a general direction for the development of the whole complex of its manifestations, and secondary, determined by the main. If the leading feature is indecisiveness, then the person, first of all, fears, "no matter how something happens," and all his attempts, for example, to help his neighbor usually end in inner feelings and self-justifications. If the leading feature is altruism, then the person does not hesitate to help his neighbor. Knowledge of the leading features allows you to understand the essence of character, its main manifestations.

From the totality of relations between the individual and the surrounding reality, character-forming forms of relations should be distinguished. The most important distinguishing feature of such relationships is the decisive, paramount or general vital importance of certain objects for a person. These relationships simultaneously serve as the basis for the classification of the most important character traits. The character of a person is manifested in the system relations:

- to other people(at the same time, such character traits as sociability - isolation, truthfulness - deceit, tact - coarseness);

- to the point(responsibility - dishonesty, diligence - laziness);

- to yourself(modesty - narcissism, self-criticism - self-confidence, pride - humility);

- to things, property(generosity - greed, frugality - extravagance, accuracy - slovenliness).

It is necessary to note a certain convention of this classification and a close relationship, interpenetration of these aspects of relations. Despite the fact that these relationships are the most important from the point of view of character formation, they do not immediately become character traits. There is a well-known sequence in the transition of these relations into character properties.

Character researchers note that it can be expressed to a greater or lesser extent. Excessive severity of individual features is characteristic and their combinations are defined by researchers as character accentuation. According to the famous psychiatrist K. Leonhard, in 20-50% of people, some character traits are so pointed (ie accentuated) that this leads to conflicts and neuropsychic disorders.

Yu.B. Gippenreiter notes three significant differences between an accentuated character and character pathology. Firstly, an accentuated character can manifest itself throughout a person’s life, escalates only in adolescence, and then smoothes out. Secondly, the features of accentuated characters do not appear in any situation, but under certain circumstances. Thirdly, the social maladjustment of the personality with accentuations either does not occur at all, or is short in time.

The most famous are the classifications of accentuated character types according to A.E. Lichko and K. Leonhard. The German scientist K. Leonhard identifies 12 types of character accentuations. Its classification is based on an assessment of the style of communication of a person with other people. Types of character accentuations are divided by K. Leonhard into two groups according to the principle of accentuation of properties of either character or temperament. He refers demonstrative, pedantic, stuck, excitable types to accentuations of character traits. The remaining variants of accentuations (hyperthymic, dysthymic, cycloid, anxious, emotive, exalted, introverted) he refers to temperament accentuations.

K.Leonhard's classification represents the following types of character actors:

Hyperthymic type. It is distinguished by extreme contact, a predominance of high spirits, increased talkativeness, expressiveness of gestures, facial expressions, pantomimics. In communication, there is a spontaneous deviation from the original topic of conversation. People of this type are energetic, initiative, with optimism and a thirst for activity. Repulsive traits inherent in this type: frivolity, insufficiently serious attitude to their official and family duties, sometimes irritability.

Disty type. It is characterized by low contact, taciturnity, pessimistic mood. People of this type lead a secluded lifestyle, homebodies, tend to obey rather than demonstrate. Attractive character traits for communication partners are seriousness, conscientiousness and

strange sense of justice. The repulsive features of this psychotype in communication: slowness, passivity, individualism.

cycloid type. People of this type are characterized by fairly frequent periodic mood swings. In a period of high mood, they are sociable, and in a period of depression, they are closed. During a spiritual upsurge, they behave like people with a hyperthymic character accentuation, and during a recession - with a distimic one.

Excitable type. It is characterized by low contact, sullenness, boringness. People of this type have delayed verbal and non-verbal reactions. In a calm state, they are conscientious, accurate. In a state of emotional arousal, they are prone to swearing, conflicts, and have poor control over their behavior.

Stuck type. People of moderate sociability, prone to moralizing, touchy, suspicious, conflict, have a heightened sensitivity to justice. They are characterized by the desire to achieve high results in any activity, to make high demands on themselves and others, discipline.

Pedantic type. People of this type are distinguished by excessive formalism, pedantry in any situation. The positive features of such a person are conscientiousness, accuracy, reliability in business.

Anxious type. He is characterized by low sociability, self-doubt, suspiciousness, timidity, low mood background. People of this type rarely conflict with others, tend to rely on a strong personality in situations of confrontation. Their positive features are diligence, goodwill, self-criticism.

Emotive type. It is characterized by the desire to communicate in a narrow circle of friends and relatives, where they are well understood. Such people are overly sensitive, touchy, tearful. At the same time, they are distinguished by kindness, compassion, empathy, diligence.

Demonstrative type. People of this type are very sociable, strive for leadership, dominance, like to be in the spotlight. They are self-confident, proud, easily adapt to a new social situation, prone to intrigue, boasting, hypocritical and selfish. Positive traits: artistry, courtesy, non-standard thinking, the ability to encourage other people to do something.

exalted type. People of this type have high contact, talkativeness, amorousness, they can be in conflict. These are altruists, attentive to friends and relatives. They have bright sincere feelings, often artistic taste. Negative features of people of this type: alarmism, susceptibility to despair, momentary moods.

Extrovert type. It differs from other types by openness to any information, readiness to listen and help anyone who asks, conformity. People of this type have a high degree of sociability, talkative, compliant, executive. It is difficult for them to be organized in everyday life and at work. Ottal-

nodding features: frivolity, thoughtlessness of actions, a tendency to spread rumors, gossip.

Iptroverted type. People of this type are characterized by low contact, isolation, isolation from reality, and a tendency to philosophize. They are focused on their inner world, on their assessment of an object or event, and not on an object as such. They are prone to loneliness, when trying to unceremoniously interfere in their personal lives, they enter into conflicts. Restrained, principled, prone to introspection, have strong convictions. Their actions are determined primarily by their own internal installation. At the same time, they are overly stubborn in defending their unrealistic views.

The described types of character accentuations appear, as noted above, inconsistently. During education and self-education, character accentuations are smoothed out, harmonized, since the character structure is mobile, dynamic and changes throughout a person’s life.

Abilities as individual characteristics of a person are studied by various sciences: philosophy, sociology, medicine and others, but none of them studies the problem of abilities as deeply and comprehensively as psychology. For psychology, more than for any other science, it is important to study the abilities of each individual. It is through abilities that a person becomes a subject of activity in society, through the development of abilities a person reaches his peak in professional and personal growth (act - Greek "peak", hence the name of the new scientific discipline - acmeology, studying the laws of such an ascent and its characteristics).

A serious contribution to the study of the problem of abilities was made by domestic scientists S.L. Rubinshtein, B.M. Teplov, N.S. Leites, V.N. Druzhinin, V.D. Shadrikov.

In domestic psychology, two directions can be distinguished in the interpretation of the problem of abilities. The first - psychophysiological - explores the relationship between the basic properties of the nervous system (inclinations) and the general mental abilities of a person (works by E.A. Golubeva, V.M. Rusalov); the second - the study of abilities in individual, play, educational, labor activity (from the active approach of A.N. Leontiev). Then, within the framework of the school of S.L. Rubinshtein, abilities began to be considered as the development of methods of activity based on inclinations.

Inclinations are congenital anatomical and physiological features of the brain, nervous system, human constitution, etc., which form the natural basis for the development of his abilities. By nature, people are endowed with various inclinations; they underlie the formation of abilities. In other words, the foundations of abilities are laid down genetically and depend on inclinations.

In psychology, there is another type of inclinations - acquired. They are spoken about in those cases when, in order to develop any ability, you need to learn something or gain experience.

Abilities are individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another, on which the success of an activity depends.

Domestic psychologist A.V. Petrovsky compared abilities with grain, which has yet to be developed-

sya. The grain thrown into the ground has the opportunity only under certain conditions (structure, soil moisture, climate, etc.) to turn into an ear. Likewise, human abilities are only an opportunity for acquiring knowledge and skills in a favorable social situation. At the same time, this same possibility can become a reality as a result of training, education and a person's own activity.

In psychology, there are various classifications of abilities. First of all, researchers distinguish natural (biologically determined) and specific human abilities. Many of the natural abilities are common to humans and animals, such as perception, memory. Most human abilities are based on natural ones.

Another approach to the structure of abilities reveals two types of them: are common And special. General abilities are those that determine the success of a person in various activities. These include mental abilities, speech, performance, development of the musculoskeletal system, etc. Special abilities determine success in certain activities. These include mathematical, musical, literary, etc.

Theoretical And practical abilities differ in that the former reflect a person's inclination to abstract-theoretical reflections, and the latter to specific practical actions.

From a developmental point of view, psychologists distinguish potential And topical capabilities.

Potential- these are the possibilities for the development of the individual, manifesting themselves every time they face new tasks that need to be solved. However, the development of an individual depends not only on his psychological properties, but also on those social conditions in which these potentialities may or may not be realized. In this case, they talk about the relevance of abilities. Due to the lack of objective conditions, opportunities, not everyone can realize their potential abilities in accordance with their psychological nature. Thus, actual abilities make up only a part of potential ones.

Educational And creative abilities reflect the nature of knowledge. Educational ones determine the success of mastering any information, and creative ones are associated with the creation of new ideas, discoveries, inventions, etc. In many cases, the basis for the development of creative abilities is the ability to learn.

A special place among socially determined abilities is given to ability to communicate. It includes interpersonal perception to evaluate people, the ability to get in touch with different people, interact with them, influence them, etc.

The combination of various highly developed abilities is called giftedness which enables a person to successfully express themselves in activities. Talent is a combination of abilities that allows a person not only successfully, but also in an original way, to independently perform complex activities. The highest level of development of abilities, when a person achieves

outstanding success in society, in the field of culture, is genius.

The nature of human abilities causes quite heated discussions among scientists. Are abilities innate or do they develop over a lifetime?

Proponents of the idea of ​​innate abilities argue that they are biologically determined and their manifestation depends entirely on the inherited fund. In their opinion, training and education can only accelerate the process of manifestation of abilities, but even without pedagogical influence, they will definitely manifest themselves. To prove this position, the researchers cite examples such as the repetition of abilities in children of talented musicians, scientists, artists (Bach, Darwin, Tolstoy dynasties).

The results of genetic studies in support of the inheritance of abilities were obtained in experiments on animals using artificial selection methods. Rats were trained to find their way through a maze. "Smart" rats were selected, which coped with the task more successfully, and "stupid" ones. Then crossbreeding took place within each of the groups. In the sixth generation, the offspring of "smart" rats went through the maze much faster than their "parents", and the indicators of "stupid" rats were even worse.

The results of such studies show the possibility of accumulating a genetic predisposition to successful learning. But how much success in the development of abilities depends only on hereditary inclinations, it is difficult to say.

Representatives of another point of view believe that the characteristics of the psyche are determined by the quality of education and training and that each person can develop any abilities. Supporters of this direction refer to cases when the children of the most primitive tribes, having received appropriate training, were no different from educated Europeans. Here they also talk about the so-called "Mowgli children", which convincingly testify to irreparable damage, even the impossibility of human development outside of society.

According to the American scientist Ushbi, abilities are determined primarily by the program of intellectual activity that was formulated in childhood. In accordance with their program, some people solve creative problems, while others solve only reproductive ones. At present, adherents of this idea in the United States are creating special centers for "growing" gifted children. A number of cases are known when in various fields of activity (science, art) around one teacher a large group of talented students arose, in terms of their number and level of abilities not explainable from the point of view of simple laws of statistics. Yu.B. Gippenreiter in his work "Introduction to General Psychology" gives an example from the experience of the Moscow music teacher M.P. known to be the highest). He believed that there were no disabled children.

Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that environmental conditions and heredity are

ability development factors. In other words, human abilities are formed and developed both through good inclinations (heredity) and through training and education (social environment).

A person is not born with certain abilities, interests, character. He becomes a personality only through mastering the experience of previous generations, enshrined in knowledge, traditions, objects of material and spiritual culture, in the system of social relations. The human genotype determines its anatomical and physiological features, the main qualities of the nervous system, the dynamics of nervous processes. The structure of the human body determines the possibility of upright walking, the structure of the brain - a potentially developed intellect, the structure of the hands - the prospect of using tools. In the biological organization of man, in his nature, the possibilities of his future mental development are laid. The formation of a person as a person occurs only in specific social conditions. The requirements of society determine both the models of people's behavior and the criteria for evaluating their behavior.

The belonging of a person to the genus Homo fixed in the concept individual. An individual can be called a newborn, and a mentally normal adult, and an idiot who does not have the simplest human skills. The concept of "individual" includes general qualities Homo sapiens- a representative of the human race as a biological species.

concept personality has many definitions, it is associated with the concept of "individuality", with the system of relations of a particular person to the world, with his individual abilities. Back in the 1940s. G. Allport gave over 50 different definitions of personality. R. Meili notes that the differences in definitions are not so much related to the object of research itself, but rather reflect the theoretical disagreements of the authors.

Personality is a system of socially significant qualities of an individual, a measure of his mastery of social values ​​and his ability to realize these values. As a person, a person is characterized by the level of development of consciousness.

The mental characteristics of people, such as intelligence, temperament, character, have a common fundamental characteristic: they are deeply individual. Individuality man is a unique combination of his mental characteristics. A developed personality has personal autonomy, individuality. In critical situations, such a person retains his life strategy, remains committed to his positions and value orientations.

An essential aspect of the personality is its relation to society, to individuals, to itself and its social and labor duties. The ability of a person to realize depends on the level of development of abilities, knowledge and skills, his emotional-volitional and intellectual qualities. Personal development is a constant expansion of its capabilities and the formation of new needs. Coming into the world as an individual, a person becomes a personality. By regulating his life activity in society, each individual solves complex life problems. Personality is manifested in the way it solves these problems. The same difficulties are overcome by different people in different ways.

There are socialized personalities - adapted to the conditions of their social existence, dssocialized personalities - deviant, deviating from basic social requirements, and mentally abnormal personalities, which include people with mental retardation, with personal accentuations and mentally ill.

In modern psychology, there are various theories of personality, which can be divided into two large groups. The first group includes theories of personality, which consider an individual, his individuality, the second - those based on the study of groups of people.

In the early 20s. 20th century K. Jung proposed a typology that included eight types of personality, which he based on the experience of his practical work as a psychiatrist. Each type was considered by him as innate, i.e. unchanged throughout a person's life. To change, in his opinion, under the influence of different circumstances, only the strength of the manifestation of certain functions within the same unchanged type can change. The function that is used most often is called the dominant one. It sets the tone for other functions and all human behavior in general. C. G. Jung argued that people can have either an extraverted or an intraverted dominant function.

C. G. Jung based his typology on the method of obtaining information and the method of making a decision based on it. Information, in his opinion, we receive through Feel, or intuition and make decisions based on objective logic, or subjective feelings. C. G. Jung identified the following psychological types:

• - extraverted feeler;
• - introverted feeler;
• - extraverted intuitive;
• - introverted intuitive;

• - extraverted thinking;
• - introverted thinking;
• - extraverted feeler;
• - introverted feeler.

C. G. Jung believed that all eight personality types described by him are simultaneously present in any person. The type manifests itself in the form of the predominance of any one function.

Today, this typology, called the MBT1 typology, has been expanded to 16 types and is used in the United States to solve a variety of problems, including pedagogical ones.

• 3. Freud developed the psychoanalytic theory of personality. The scientist attached particular importance to the subconscious sphere of the psyche, believing that it is she who has a significant impact on people's behavior. He developed the idea that consciousness is only a small part of the psyche, and the main mental activity takes place in the subconscious, which has a strong influence on behavior and emotions.
• 3. Freud singled out three components of personality structure, including:

Eid - the most primitive matter, embracing everything innate, subject to the object of pleasure and ignorant of reality;

Ego- consciousness that follows the principle of reality and develops a number of mechanisms that allow it to adapt to the environment;

Superego - a source of moral and religious feelings, a controlling and punishing agent, a product of influence emanating from other people.

According to the concept of 3. Freud, these three components of the human psyche come into conflict with each other, which is the essence of a person's personality. The consequences of the conflict may be a vague, unjustified sense of guilt or an unconscious need for punishment. The theory of personality developed by 3. Freud presented a person not as a rational being and aware of his behavior, but as a being in eternal conflict, the origins of which lie in another, wider, mental sphere - in the unconscious.

E. Erickson, the founder of the theory of psychosocial development, considered the formation and development of the personality as a change of stages, at each of which a qualitative transformation of the inner world of a person and a change in his relationship with people take place. He singled out eight types we have considered earlier. The possibility of solving the psychological problems of the next stages depends on the success of solving problems at each age stage.

According to behavioral theory, personality is a product of learning. According to this concept, human behavior is a product of the social environment. Personality is formed through language, customs, social institutions, mass media. Changes in personal behavior are derived from the process of learning, understood as the stimulation of desired actions. The main role is given to the reinforcement system, a direct analogy is drawn between the behavior of humans and animals. As incentives can be used: knowledge, power, comfort, respect, fame, money, benevolent attitude. The behavioral theory proceeds from the fact that each person seeks to avoid punishment and receive encouragement and, in this regard, responds to external incentives and social orders. The more valuable a reward is to a person, the more often he will demonstrate the expected behavior.

According to behaviorists, personality is formed and develops throughout life as socialization, upbringing and learning. Rational and irrational processes are equally represented in a personality: in some cases, a person can be clearly aware of his actions and his behavior, while in others he cannot. A person is almost completely deprived of free will, his behavior is determined by external circumstances. Reflexes and social skills act as elements of personality. The properties of the personality and the requirements of the social environment of a person coincide, i.e. if a person was brought up in a prosperous family, he was encouraged for kindness and calmness, then he will be kind and calm.

An important role in the development of personality psychology was played by humanistic theories, representatives of which were A. Maslow, K. Rogers and V. Frankl. The term "humanistic psychology" was proposed by a group of psychologists who, in the early 60s. 20th century united under the leadership of A. Maslow to oppose the two most significant trends in psychology - psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Their works deal with the most important destinations of the individual. Humanistic psychology takes as the main model a responsible person who freely makes a choice. From this point of view, the very essence of a person constantly moves him in the direction of personal growth, creativity and self-sufficiency, unless circumstances interfere with this. Proponents of humanistic psychology also argue that humans are highly conscious and intelligent creatures without dominant unconscious needs and conflicts. Thus, representatives of the humanistic theory consider people as active creators of their own lives, having the freedom to choose a lifestyle, which is limited only by physical or social influences. The central link of personality is self-esteem, a person's idea of ​​himself, ^-concept, which is generated in interaction with other people.

^-concept - a system of a person's ideas about himself, including awareness of his physical, intellectual and social properties, self-esteem, subjective perception of external factors affecting his own personality. These representations can be grouped into three categories: "Real I"(how the individual imagines himself at the moment), "Social I"(as, according to the individual, he is represented by other people) and "Ideal I"(what the individual would like to be).

The personality typology of E. Kretschmer, a German psychiatrist and psychologist, also took shape by the beginning of the 1920s. 20th century The author of this theory relied on the morphological characteristics of the structure of the human body, linking them with character traits.

According to E. Kretschmer, an asthenic physique is characteristic of schizotimics who are closed, prone to reflection, to abstraction, with difficulty adapting to the environment, sensitive, vulnerable.

Cyclothymics have a picnic physique, they are sociable, frank, good-natured, realistic, their emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness.

An athletic physique is typical for iscotimics, who can be energetic, sharp, self-confident, aggressive or unimpressive, with restrained gestures and facial expressions, with low flexibility of thinking.

According to E. Kretschmer, personality types of a normal person (cyclothymic, schizotimic) can develop into character anomalies (cycloid, schizoid), and then into a mental illness (manic-depressive psychosis, schizophrenia). He noticed that manic-depressive psychosis is more common in picnics, schizophrenia - in asthenics and less often in athletics, epilepsy - mainly in athletics and asthenics.

Developing the ideas of E. Kretschmer, the American psychologist W. Sheldon in the mid-40s. 20th century Based on the study of experimental material, he singled out three types of human body structure and selected about 50 basic psychological traits, which, in his opinion, are decisive for constructing a typology of human temperaments.

According to W. Sheldon, there are three types of temperament: viscerotonic, somatotonic and cerebrotonic.

The first type is characterized by behavior aimed at the approval of others, the need for communication, contact, ease in expressing feelings. The most striking features of the second type are directness in dealing with people, the need to dominate, low empathy, aggressiveness, the desire for risk, a penchant for adventure, the need for active action in difficult times. The third type is characterized by fear of society, timidity, indecision, secrecy, shyness, the need for solitude in a stressful situation, subjectivism in thinking, and a tendency to reason.

The typologies of G. Allport, R. Cattell and G. Eysenck differ, but at their core they have a fairly large list of characteristics that describe the functioning of a person in different conditions - from personal-individual to social. Based on this, the relevant questionnaires (tests) were compiled, the necessary statistics were collected and the data was processed. As a result, the authors managed to build a typology of a person and offer a tool for determining the type. Today, tests developed by these scientists are widely used for psychological diagnosis of a person.

Domestic psychologists also contributed to the creation of personality theory.

The author of the cultural-historical concept of personality, L. S. Vygotsky, believed that personality is invisibly present in the process of human cultural development. In his opinion, when studying the human personality, it is necessary to take into account the whole complex of higher mental functions.

K. K. Platonov interpreted personality as a kind of biosocial hierarchical structure. He singled out the following personality substructures: orientation, experience (knowledge, ability, skills), individual characteristics of sensations, perceptions, memories, and general behavioral characteristics. According to K. K. Platonov, in any phenomenon studied by psychology, a personality is always present and manifested, and in social relations it acts inseparably from its states and mental phenomena.

A. N. Leontiev, developing the concept of the psychological theory of activity, drew attention to some problems of the personality. The judgment: “Personality is a special quality that an individual acquires in society” is the starting point for the entire theory of the activity mediation of a personality. According to A. N. Leontiev, personality does not precede activity, it is generated by it, i.e. personality can be both a condition and a product of activity.

Today, there are also personality typologies associated with character accentuations. These are the concepts of the German psychologist K. Leonhard and the domestic psychologist A. Lichko. These typologies arose as an attempt to describe the variants of social maladaptation of a person. According to these scientists, accentuation is one of the characteristics of a person who, due to certain circumstances, receives hypertrophied development.

The type of higher nervous activity of a person determines his temperament, which is manifested in all actions of the individual. A person's abilities depend on the type of higher nervous activity and the type of temperament. Abilities determine the possibility of including a person in certain types of activities, so they influence the formation of the orientation of the individual. Orientation, ability and temperament are refracted in character traits.

Temperament(from lat. temperamentum- the proper ratio of parts) - the totality of the psychodynamic properties of the individual, which are manifested in the features of his mental activity. Temperament is the natural basis for the manifestation of the psychological qualities of a person.

The first typology of temperaments was created by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, who defined them depending on which fluid prevails in the human body.

sanguine(from lat. sanguis- blood) - a cheerful person, quickly responding to various changes, with a strong balanced nervous system.

Choleric(from Greek. choie- bile) - a person who reacts quickly, but does not think about his actions, does not have time to slow down, restrain himself, shows impatience, quick-tempered, with a strong unbalanced nervous system.

Phlegmatic person(from Greek. phlegma- mucus) - a person with a strong, balanced nervous system, but very inert, reacts slowly, taciturn, shows emotions dimly, resists difficulties well.

melancholic(from Greek. melas- black and choie- bile) - a person with a weak nervous system, who has an increased sensitivity to stressful situations, minor reasons can cause him resentment and tears, his mood is changeable.

This typology was confirmed in the works of I. P. Pavlov, the founder of the doctrine of the higher nervous activity of man and animals, who based his typology on the strength, mobility and balance of nervous processes.

Strength and, accordingly, weakness, as the other pole of this property, are expressed by the degree of endurance of the nervous system in relation to a long-acting stimulus, as well as by the tolerance of strong stimuli, even short ones. The strength of nervous processes is also manifested in how adequately the nervous system reacts to stimuli of various strengths, which indicates its sensitivity and excitability.

The mobility of nervous processes, and at the opposite pole - inertia are determined by how quickly the nervous system is restructured to changing stimuli.

Balance and imbalance of nervous processes reveal the ratio of excitation and inhibition in terms of their strength.

At present, theories are widespread in foreign psychology, stating that temperament depends not only on the type of nervous system, but also on the structure of the body, the ratio of its various parts, and also on the activity of the endocrine glands.

Each type of temperament has both positive and negative properties. A melancholic can be impressionable, deeply worried and vividly show emotions, a phlegmatic person can be self-possessed, not making hasty decisions, a sanguine person can be a person ready for any work, a choleric person can be passionate, frantic and active in work. The negative properties of temperament can manifest themselves in a melancholic in the form of isolation and shyness, in a phlegmatic person - indifference to people and dryness, in a sanguine person - superficiality, dispersion, inconstancy, in a choleric person - irascibility.

The type of temperament does not affect the ability of a person, everyone can be capable in one area and not capable in another. Some life tasks are more easily solved by a person of one type of temperament, others - by another. Temperament characterizes the dynamism of the personality, but does not determine its beliefs, views, interests, therefore it is not an indicator of the value of the personality and does not show its capabilities.

Character - a set of stable personality traits that determine a person’s attitude towards himself and the people around him, this is a style of human behavior that has developed and strengthened under the influence of life influences and upbringing.

Character expresses a certain warehouse of needs and interests, aspirations and goals, feelings and will. The qualities of character include moral upbringing, completeness, integrity, certainty, strength, balance. moral war- nutrition determines a person both in terms of his relationships with people and forms of behavior and is the leading and most socially valuable quality of character. completeness characterizes the versatility of needs and interests, aspirations and hobbies, speaks of the diversity of human activities. Wholeness- the internal unity of the mental warehouse of a person, the consistency of his relations with various aspects of reality, the absence of contradictions in aspirations and interests. Certainty testifies to the invariance of behavior. Force - it is the energy with which a person realizes the goals set for himself, the ability to get passionate about and fight with difficulties and overcome them. Equilibrium- the most optimal ratio of restraint and activity.

The physiological basis of character is the type of nervous system. By character, one should first of all understand what is acquired by the nervous system under the influence of life experience and, above all, education. The character is based mainly on the plasticity of the nervous system, since it is it that is most associated with the influence of the external environment. Thus, the type of nervous system is only one of the foundations of character, but does not predetermine it.

The nature of a person depends on the goals that give the direction of his activity. Orientation - a selective attitude to reality that characterizes a person, affecting his activity. The mental characteristic of orientation is mindfulness. Mindfulness is manifested in both involuntary and voluntary attention. When a person pays attention to many things, this attentiveness is involuntary. Intentional, conscious mindfulness is an indicator of such important volitional character traits as endurance and perseverance.

One of the most common forms of a person's vainness is his interests. Usually interest causes a desire to act.

One of the main components of character is will. Volitional activity is formed in social relations. Volitional processes are varied. They can take the form of attraction, desire, wanting and intention. Not every volitional process has characterological significance. Some intentions, aspirations and desires of a person can be temporary, purely situational states.

Under character traits refers to complex individual characteristics that are sufficiently indicative for a person and allow, with a certain probability, to predict his behavior in a particular case. Character traits are distinguished by a pronounced consciousness. They are a real and concrete expression of the individual identity of a person living in specific historical conditions.

Under character structure as a whole, its certainty, integrity, complexity, originality and dynamism are implied.

One of the most important features of character is its certainty. The structure of character is dynamic: even the most stable character is subject to change depending on the conditions in which it is formed and manifested. His features also change and acquire new meaning in the dynamics of character.

Character develops as a result of the integration of various personality traits that are formed under the influence of life experience and upbringing. To form an integral and socially valuable character, it is necessary to develop the personality comprehensively.

There are many attempts to classify character. There are two directions in the study of character.

The first direction is associated with the study of social characters, and the second - individual characters. The founder of the first direction can be considered the American psychologist E. Fromm. The social character includes only a set of character traits that are present in most members of a given social group. The typology of individual characters reflects the psychological situation when, within the same culture, one personality differs from another. The creator of this typology of character is considered to be C. G. Jung.

Capabilities- this is a mental property that is a condition for the successful implementation of any one or more types of activity. These are undoubtedly individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another. The inclinations that underlie the development of abilities, i.e. the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the organism may be hereditary, while the abilities themselves are always the result of development.

"Ability" is a dynamic concept. Ability exists only in motion, it cannot complete its development. Abilities are created in activity. Absolute pitch as an ability manifests itself in a child when learning music.

Separate abilities exist next to each other and independently of each other. Each ability changes, acquires a qualitatively different character.

Control questions and tasks

• 1. Define the concepts of "individual", "personality", "individuality".
• 2. What is the difference between the concepts of "individuality" and "personality"?
• 3. Give a brief description of the main foreign theories of personality.
• 4. How is the essence of personality understood in Russian psychology?
• 5. What is the essence of L. S. Vygotsky's cultural and historical concept of personality?
• 6. What personality substructures did K. K. Platonov single out?
• 7. List the components of the personality structure.
• 8. What is temperament? Describe the main types of temperament.
• 9. Describe the main character traits
• 10. What factors influence the formation of character?
• 11. Define abilities.
• 12. What are deposits? Give examples.

Each person differs from others by a huge, truly inexhaustible number of individual features, that is, features inherent in him as an individual.

T. Chirkova gives the following definition: individuality is a peculiar combination of the individual properties of a person that distinguishes him from other people.

According to R.S. Nemov, the individuality of a person is characterized by its socially significant differences from other people and manifests itself in the originality of the psyche and personality of the individual, its uniqueness, as well as in the traits of temperament, character, in the specifics of interests, qualities of perceptual processes (perception) and intelligence, needs and abilities of the individual. From the standpoint of materialism, the prerequisite for the formation of human individuality lies in the anatomical and physiological inclinations, which are transformed in the course of education, which has a socially conditioned character, giving rise to a wide variability in the manifestations of individuality.

Individual psychological characteristics distinguish one person from another.

According to S.L. Rubenstein, the most general dynamic structure of personality is the generalization of all its possible individual psychological characteristics into four groups, forming four main aspects of personality:

• 1. Biologically determined features (temperament, inclinations, simple needs).
• 2. Socially determined features (orientation, moral qualities, worldview).
• 3. Individual characteristics of various mental processes.
• 4. Experience (volume and quality of existing knowledge, skills, abilities and habits).

Not all individual psychological characteristics of these aspects of the personality will be character traits. But all character traits, of course, are personality traits.

Character is a core mental property of a person that leaves an imprint on all his actions and deeds, a property on which, first of all, a person’s activity in various life situations depends.

In other words, giving a definition of character, we can say that this is a set of personality traits that determines the typical ways of responding to life circumstances.

Under the character of R.S. Nemov does not understand any individual psychological characteristics of a person, but only a set of the most pronounced and relatively stable personality traits that are typical for a given person and systematically manifested in his actions and deeds.

According to B. G. Ananiev, the character “expresses the main life orientation and manifests itself in a mode of action that is peculiar for a given person.” The word "character" in Greek means "sign", "feature".

Temperament features have a great influence on character traits.

Temperament is a characteristic of an individual from the side of the dynamic features of his mental activity, that is, the pace, rhythm, intensity of individual mental processes and states.

Temperament researchers distinguish such properties of it, which are most closely related to each other and to the qualities of character:

• - sensitivity - a feature of a person, manifested in the occurrence of sensitivity (mental reaction) to an external stimulus of the least force;
• - reactivity - a feature of a person associated with the strength of an emotional reaction to external and internal stimuli;
• - activity - the ability of a person, which consists in overcoming external and internal restrictions in production, in socially significant transformations, in the appropriation of wealth, the assimilation of spiritual culture;
• - the rate of reactions - a feature of a person, which consists in the speed of the flow of mental processes, and to a certain extent, mental states;
• - plasticity - rigidity - the characteristics of a person to adapt flexibly and easily to new conditions, or to behave in a bony, inert, insensitive manner in changing conditions;
• - extraversion-introversion - features of a person, expressed in the predominant orientation of the personality's activity either outward (to the world of external objects: surrounding people, events, objects), or inward (to the phenomena of one's own subjective world, to one's experiences and thoughts).

Temperament, being innate, is the basis of most personality traits. But it determines only the dynamics of their manifestation (sensibility, emotionality, impulsivity, anxiety).

The next individual-typological feature of the personality is abilities.

By definition, E.P. Ilyin, abilities are something that does not come down to knowledge, skills and abilities, but explains (provides) their rapid acquisition, consolidation and effective use in practice. This definition was given by our domestic scientist B.M. Teplov. The concept of "ability", in his opinion, contains three ideas:

• - firstly, abilities are understood as individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another;
• - secondly, abilities are not called any individual characteristics in general, but only those that are related to the success of performing an activity or many activities;
• - thirdly, the concept of "ability" is not limited to the knowledge, skills or abilities that have already been developed by a given person. Abilities and knowledge, abilities and skills, abilities and skills are not identical to each other. In relation to skills, abilities and knowledge, human abilities act as some kind of opportunity. Just as a grain thrown into the soil is only a possibility in relation to an ear, which can grow from this grain only under the condition that the structure, composition and moisture of the soil, weather, etc. turn out to be favorable, human abilities are only an opportunity for acquiring knowledge and skills.

R.S. Nemov notes that abilities are an opportunity, and the necessary level of skill in a particular business is a reality. The musical abilities revealed in the child are by no means a guarantee that the child will be a musician.

It is necessary to distinguish between natural, or natural, abilities and specific human abilities that have a socio-historical origin. Many of the natural abilities are common to man and animals, especially the higher ones. Such elementary abilities are perception, memory, thinking. A person, in addition to biologically determined ones, has abilities that ensure his life and development in a social environment. These are general (mental abilities, subtlety and accuracy of manual movements, developed memory, perfect speech and a number of others) and special higher intellectual abilities (musical, mathematical, linguistic, technical, literary, sports and a number of others), based on the use of speech and logic. Theoretical and practical abilities differ in that the former predetermine a person's inclination to abstract-theoretical reflections, and the latter to concrete, practical actions.

Thus, individual psychological characteristics are the peculiar properties of the mental activity of a person, which are expressed in temperament, character, motivational-required sphere and abilities. They are formed as a result of a systemic generalization of individual biological and socially acquired properties involved in the functioning of a person's behavioral system, as well as his activity and communication. They are associated with all mental processes: motivational-need, cognitive, emotional-volitional. Temperament and character denote the dynamic and meaningful aspects of behavior, and abilities are such personality traits that are a condition for performing one or another productive activity.

maternal representation psychological child

2.2.Individually-psychological features of personality. Temperament, character and abilities.

In psychology, when talking about individual typological characteristics of a person, they usually mean such phenomena as temperament, character and abilities. Temperament - the biological foundation on which personality is formed. It reflects the dynamic aspects of behavior, mostly innate. V. S. Merlin considers individual characteristics to be the properties of temperament, which

regulate the dynamics of mental activity in general;

characterize the features of the dynamics of individual mental processes;

are sustainable and permanent;

are in strictly regular ratios characterizing the type of temperament;

due to the general type of the nervous system.

It should be borne in mind that individual dynamic features, if they are features of temperament, are not due to any objective content of activity. Temperament- this is a property of a person that characterizes the dynamics of the course of mental processes and activities. The word temperament was introduced by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (U-IV centuries BC). He understood it as a property that determines the individual differences of people and depends on the proportions of 4 fluids in the body: blood (in Latin "sangve"), lymph (in Greek "phlegm"), bile (in Greek "chole") and black bile (in Greek "melana chole"). The predominance of one of the liquids corresponded to a certain temperament. The names of temperament types have survived to this day (sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, melancholic). At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the formation of temperaments in modern psychology is explained in a completely different way. It has been proved that each type of temperament is based on the features of the human nervous system, the properties of this nervous system. The following properties of the human nervous system were experimentally identified:

strength, manifested in endurance, performance of the nervous system and in a certain way characterizing the processes of excitation and inhibition (therefore, strong and weak types of the nervous system are distinguished);

balance, which characterizes the optimal ratio of the processes of excitation and inhibition;

mobility, which consists in characterizing the speed of movement of nervous processes in the cerebral cortex.

Psychophysiologist I.P. Pavlov showed that each type of temperament has its own combination of properties of the nervous system:

phlegmatic - a strong, balanced, inert type of nervous system;

sanguine - a strong, balanced, mobile type of the nervous system;

choleric - a strong, unbalanced, mobile type of the nervous system;

melancholic - a weak type of nervous system.

The main psychological characteristics of temperament include:

sensitivity (sensitivity), revealing the picture of what is the smallest force of external influences causes mental reactions of the individual and what is the speed of this response;

reactivity, showing the degree and intensity of an individual's involuntary reactions to internal and external stimuli (criticism, threat, etc.);

activity, which characterizes the degree of energy, efficiency of a person in activity, his ability to overcome obstacles, purposefulness, perseverance, focus on activity, etc.;

the ratio of reactivity and activity, revealing a picture of what the personality's activity depends on - from random external and internal circumstances, moods, random events or from consciously set goals, life aspirations, plans, etc .;

the rate of reactions, characterizing the speed of actions, movements, speed of speech, mind, resourcefulness, etc.;

extroversion;

introversion;

plasticity, characterizing the ease of adaptation of a person to new and unexpected situations, the flexibility of behavior;

rigidity, showing the inclination of the individual to inert behavior, established habits and stereotypes of life, inertia.

Choleric- a person is fast, sometimes even impetuous, with strong, quickly lighting up feelings, clearly reflected in speech, facial expressions, gestures; often - quick-tempered, prone to violent emotional outbursts;

sanguine- a person is fast, agile, giving an emotional response to all impressions; his feelings are directly reflected in external behavior, but they are not strong and easily replace one another.

melancholic- a person who is distinguished by a relatively small variety of emotional experiences, but their great strength and duration; he does not respond to everything, but when he does, he experiences strongly, although he does not express his feelings outside;

Phlegmatic person- a person is slow, balanced and calm, who is not easy to emotionally hurt and impossible to piss off; his feelings are not manifested in any way outside.

In conclusion, it should be noted that temperament refers to the so-called genotypic personality traits, it completely depends on heredity and does not change during life.

Character- this is a property of a person, expressed in its relationship to the world around, to society, to activity, to oneself, to other people, to things and objects. Character includes stable personality traits that describe her behavior and activities from the content side. Therefore, in psychology, character is often understood as a set of individually peculiar traits that manifest themselves in the ways of activity typical of a given individual, are found in these typical circumstances, and express the attitude of the individual to these circumstances. Human relations and character traits are formed during life and therefore character is an acquired personality formation. Character - a set of stable individual characteristics of a person, which develops and manifests itself in activity and communication, causing typical ways of behavior for it. The concept of character is very different in various theoretical constructions. In foreign characterology, three directions can be distinguished:

constitutional - biological (E. Kretschmer - character, essentially boils down to the sum of the constitution and temperament);

psychoanalytic (Z. Freud, K. G. Jung, A. Adler, etc.). Character is explained on the basis of the unconscious inclinations of a person;

ideological (Roebeck's psychoethical theory): The character lies in the inhibition of instincts, which determines the ethical and logical sanctions. What instincts and what sanctions are inhibited depends on the internal immanent properties of the personality. Baud character determines the social position of a person, etc..

In domestic psychology, the study of character is associated with the names of N. O. Lossky, P. F. Lesgaft, A. F. Lazursky, A. P. Nechaev, V. I. Strakhov, B. G. Ananiev, N. D. Levitov and etc. Here, one can also distinguish various directions: idealistic, biologization, materialistic. Based on various approaches to this topic, one can note the social and evaluative connotation in determining the character; significant stability of psychological characteristics. Character is formed on the basis of temperament under the influence of living conditions. In the character, temperament traits are contained in a transformed form. They are understood and accepted or not accepted by a person.

character structure. In the structure of character, different authors distinguish various properties. So, B. G. Ananiev considers character to be an expression and a condition for the integrity of the personality and refers to its main properties orientation, habits, communicative properties, emotional and dynamic manifestations formed on the basis of temperament:

balance - imbalance;

sensitivity - aggressiveness;

latitude - narrowness;

depth - superficiality;

wealth, richness - poverty;

strength is weakness.

N. D. Levitov highlights the certainty of character, its integrity, complexity, dynamism, originality, strength, firmness. These and many other attempts to highlight the structural properties of character require analysis and generalization. Of great importance are the characterological qualities (features, properties) found by a person in various types of relations to the world around him:

in relation to society (ideological or non-ideological, actively participating in politics or apolitical, etc.);

in relation to activity (active or inactive, industrious or lazy, etc.);

in relation to other people (altruist or egoist, sociable or withdrawn, etc.);

in relation to oneself (having adequate or inadequate self-esteem, confident or arrogant, etc.);

in relation to things (kind, greedy, etc.).

Capabilities- these are individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another and are related to the success of the activity. When talking about abilities, keep the following in mind:

These are the features that distinguish one person from another. B. M. Teplov considers the most important sign of abilities to be the individual originality of productive activity, the originality and originality of the methods used in activity.

Abilities serve the successful performance of activities. Some researchers, for example, N.A. Menchinskaya, believe that in this case it is more logical to speak of learning as success in acquiring skills, knowledge, and skills.

Abilities are characterized by the possibility of transferring the developed skills and abilities to a new situation. At the same time, the new task should be similar to the previously solved tasks not by the sequence of methods of action, but by the requirements for the same mental properties of a person.

The basis of abilities is inclinations. Makings- these are natural prerequisites that are a condition for the development of abilities, not only in the sense that they give originality to the process of their development, but also in the sense that they can, within certain limits, determine the content side and influence the level of achievements. The inclinations include not only the anatomical, morphological and physiological properties of the brain, but also mental properties to the extent that they are directly and immediately conditioned by heredity. Ability is a dynamic concept. They are formed, developed and manifested in activity.

General and special abilities. Special abilities - abilities for certain types of activities (mathematical abilities, musical abilities, pedagogical, etc.). General abilities are the ability to develop special abilities. giftedness- this is a qualitatively peculiar combination of abilities, on which the possibility of achieving greater or lesser success in the performance of one or another activity depends. The concept of abilities is usually associated with mental activity. But there are no grounds for such a narrow interpretation of abilities, although traditionally it is the sphere of mental activity that has been and continues to be investigated in connection with abilities. High general mental development may not be accompanied by the manifestation of abilities in any special area or any kind of special giftedness. However, the manifestation and achievement of high special abilities, special giftedness is unthinkable without the presence of general abilities, general giftedness. The inclinations include morphological and functional features of the structure of the brain, sensory organs, movements, which act as a prerequisite for the development of abilities.

Behavior is understood as the external manifestations of a person's mental activity. Behavior takes place in the external world and is detected by external observation, while the processes of consciousness take place inside the subject and are detected by self-observation. Facts of behavior: firstly, all external manifestations of physiological processes associated with the state, activity, communication of people - posture, facial expressions, intonations, glances, eye shine, redness, blanching, trembling, intermittent or restrained breathing, muscle tension, etc. ; secondly, individual movements and gestures, such as bowing, nodding, pushing, clenching the hand, knocking with the fist, etc.; thirdly, actions as larger acts of behavior that have a certain meaning. Finally, these are actions - even larger acts of behavior that, as a rule, have a public, or social, sound and are associated with norms of behavior, relationships, self-esteem, etc. d.

The psychology of behavior arose at the beginning of the 20th century after a crisis in psychology (there was a change in the subject of psychology). It was not consciousness - Wundt, but human behavior - the founder was John Watson. The direction was called - behaviorism. He believed that psychology should not study consciousness, but human behavior, i.e. external manifestations of human mental activity. He argued that consciousness is not included in the category of scientific concepts, because. there are no scientific methods for studying consciousness. The scientific method must be objective (not dependent on the expert) and reproducible. Facts P: 1. All external manifestations of physiological processes - posture, facial expressions, intonations, looks, muscle tension, etc.; 2. Separate movements and gestures - nodding, pushing, squeezing hands, etc.; 3. Actions as larger acts of behavior that have a certain meaning - a request, an order, etc.; 4. deeds are even larger acts of behavior that have a social or social significance associated with norms of behavior. In Watson's scientific terms, behavior is a system of reactions. To study it, he proposed to divide behavior into the simplest behavioral districts. He offered to study St. Islands and see how more complex acts of behavior are formed on the basis of these districts. He believed that the behavioral r-tion fits the formula

S (stimulus) - R (r-tion). He declares the relationship S - R as a unit of behavior. As the general final tasks of psychology, he outlines: 1. to come to the situation (stimulus) to predict the behavior (reaction) of a person; 2. to conclude from the reaction about the stimulus that caused it, that is, from behavior, predict R, and from R to conclude about S. Behaviorists experimented mainly on animals.

They did this not because they were interested in animals in themselves, but because animals, from their point of view, have a great advantage: they are "pure" objects, since their behavior is not mixed with consciousness. The results they obtained were boldly transferred to humans. J. Watson identifies innate reactions (sneezing, hiccupping, sucking, smiling, crying, movements, etc.) and acquired. A new step in the development of behaviorism was the study of a special type of conditioned reactions, the cat. were called instrumental (E. Thorndike, 1898) or operant (B. Skinner, 1938). The phenomenon of instrumental or operant conditioning consists in the fact that if any action of the individual is reinforced, then it is fixed and then reproduced with great ease and constancy. Patterns of behavior: Thorndike: not an external impulse, but a problematic situation, was taken as the initial moment of a motor act. Then the connection

S-R was characterized by the following features: 1) starting point - a problematic situation; 2) the organism resists it as a whole; 3) he is actively seeking choice; and 4) is learned through exercise. He formulated the foundations of his approach in several laws: 1. Laws of exercises, according to which, other things being equal, the reaction to a situation is associated with it in proportion to the frequency of repetition of connections and their strength.

2. The law of readiness: exercise changes the body's readiness to conduct nerve impulses. 3. The law of associative shift: if, with the simultaneous action of stimuli, one of them causes a reaction, then the others acquire the ability to cause the same reaction. This step reflected the “law of effect”: if frequency, strength and contiguity were mechanical determinants, then effects were understood as special states inherent in the biopsychic level of behavior determination.

The law of effect said: “any act that causes satisfaction in a given situation is associated with it, so that if it reappears, then the appearance of this act becomes more likely than before. On the contrary, any act that causes discomfort in a given situation is split off from it, so that when it reappears, the occurrence of this act becomes less likely. From this it followed that the result of the action is evaluated by the organism and, depending on this assessment, the links between S and R are fixed. Then neobikhev appeared. Founder - Tolman. He said that it was impossible to describe a simple behavioral r-tion according to Watson, because the formula does not take into account the internal states of a person, because different districts can be given for the same stimulus. Introduced a new parameter O - intermediate variables S - O - R - internal experiences of a person (desires, knowledge, goals). Bihev-ma merits: introduced a strong materialistic spirit into psychology - a natural-scientific path of development; introduced an objective method based on the registration and analysis of externally observable facts, processes, events; the class of objects under study has expanded (behavior of animals, pre-speech babies); separate sections of psychology have been advanced (problems of learning, education of skills). Disadvantages of behavior: convergence of the psyche of an animal and a person; ignoring consciousness; underestimation of the complexity of human mental activity.

Topic: Motives, their types and functions. Motive - an incentive to activity associated with the satisfaction of a need, i.e. the motivating and determining choice of the direction of activity is the subject of need. Motivation is an impulse that causes activity.

In foreign psychology, a number of features of the nature and functions of the motive in the regulation of behavior have been identified: 1. The motivating and guiding function of the motive. 2. Determination of human behavior by unconscious motives. 3. Hierarchy of motives. 4. The desire for balance and tension - here the motive is understood purely energetically.

In the theory of Leontiev's activity, the realization of needs in the course of search activity and, thereby, the transformation of its objects into objects of needs is considered as a general mechanism for the emergence of a motive. Hence: the development of the motive occurs through a change and expansion of the circle of activity that transforms reality.

In man, the source of motive development is the process of social production of material and spiritual values. Such potential motives in otnogenesis are the values, ideals, interests inherent in a given society, which, in the event of their internalization, acquire a motivating force and become a motive. According to Leontiev, in the course of search activity, a need usually meets its object. At the moment the need meets the object, the objectification of the need takes place. This is a very important event. It is important because in the act of objectification a motive is born. The motive is defined as the subject of need. If we look at the same event from the side of need, we can say that through objectification, the need receives its concretization. In this regard, the motive is defined in another way - as an objectified need. A motive is that objective that induces and directs activity, responding to one or another need, concretizing the need or satisfying it. That is, the main function of motives is to induce and direct activity. Following the objectification of a need and the appearance of a motive, the type of behavior changes dramatically, if up to this point the behavior was non-directional, search, now it acquires a “vector”, or direction. A motive is something for which an action is performed. “For the sake of” something, a person, as a rule, performs many different actions.

A set of actions that are connected by one motive is called an activity, and more specifically, a special activity or a special type of activity. Correlation of motives and consciousness. Motives are not always recognized, therefore, two classes of motives are distinguished: those that are recognized and those that are not recognized. Examples of motives of the first class can be great life goals that direct a person's activities during long periods of his life - these are motives-goals. Relationship between motives and personality. It is known that human motives form a hierarchical system. Usually the hierarchical relationships of motives are not fully realized. They become clearer in a situation of conflict of motives. New motives are formed in the course of activity. In the theory of activity, a mechanism for the formation of new motives is described, which is called the mechanism for shifting a motive to a goal. The essence of this mechanism lies in the fact that the goal, previously impelled to its implementation by some motive, eventually acquires an independent motivating force, i.e. becomes its own motive. The transformation of a goal into a motive can only happen if positive emotions accumulate. There are the following functions of motives: 1. incentive (to activity); 2. directing (the motive directs the activity towards itself); 3. goal-generating (the motive generates an action aimed at meeting the need. Goals form the basis of actions); 4. sense-forming (the motive gives the actions significance, importance). What we do acquires personal meaning for us, i.e. experiencing an increased subjective significance of an object or event associated with a motive.

Possible grounds for the classification of motives. 1) Actual motives - what is being done (professional choice, leisure). Potential - those that can organize an action. They determine the possible options for a person's life. When social conditions change, then motives change. When we are forced to make an unattractive choice for ourselves under the influence of conditions, then potential motives acquire significance (neuroses, withdrawals). 2) Leading and secondary motives. The motivational sphere of personality is hierarchized. Activity is motivated by several motives. Human activity is polymotivated, i.e. simultaneously regulated by two or more motives. 3) Meaningful and motive incentives. After all, a person in his activity objectively implements a whole system of relations: to the objective world, to the people around him, to society and to himself. Some motives, stimulating the activity, at the same time give it a personal meaning - they are called leading or meaning-forming. 4) According to the subject content: 1. Subject - organize the final direction of the activity. They always clearly indicate what should be (eg: build a house). The motive consists of the content and the active nature of the transformation. Modes of transformation: refusal, renunciation, acquisition, creation, maintenance, expression, preservation, aggression, avoidance. 2. Functional motives: for example, people's need for communication does not have a final focus. They motivate the activity. Something that is pleasant in the process itself, and not in its end (it's nice to read a book). Game activity is an element of targeting (hide so that they are not found). Motivating mass of intermediate goals (intermediate motivations). This is a motivation that is tied to separate small intermediate goals (an analogue in animals is instinct). 3. Normative: appear less frequently. Levin: barriers are something that does not organize, but limits activity, does not encourage individual activity. Moral motives.5) According to the level of generalization. Dodonov, Merey. What really motivates activity occurs at different levels of generality (love Beethoven's music or love his Moonlight Sonata). The idea of ​​justice - different levels of generalization. Generalized, specific, individual motives. 6) According to the degree of awareness. Conscious and unconscious. Often a person is not aware of the motives of his behavior and invents reasons.

Motivation is a consciously imagined motive that has nothing to do with reality..

Topic Perception, its main properties and patterns.

Perception is a holistic reflection of reality (objects, situations, events and phenomena), arising from the direct impact of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs.

The difference from feeling perception reflects the object as a whole in the totality of its properties, and sensations reflect the individual properties of the stimulus. Types of perception. Depending on the forms of reflection, there are: 1. perception of space; 2. perception of movement; 3. perception of time. Depending on the goal, there are: 1. intentional perception, characterized by the fact that it is based on a consciously set goal. It is connected with the volitional efforts of a person; 2. unintentional perception, in which objects of the surrounding reality are perceived without a specially set task, when the process of perception is not associated with volitional efforts. Depending on the degree of organization, there are: 1. organized perception (observation) - this is a purposeful, systematic perception of objects or phenomena of the surrounding world; 2. unorganized perception is the usual systematic perception of the surrounding reality. Naturally, visual, auditory, tactile perception is distinguished. Physiological bases of perception. It is caused by simultaneous complex stimuli, is carried out by the simultaneous and coordinated activity of several analyzers, and proceeds with the participation of the associative sections of the cerebral cortex and speech centers.

Properties of perception: 1. selectivity of perception - the ability of a person to perceive only those objects that are of greatest interest to him. It depends on the interests, attitudes and needs of the individual. 2. objectivity - the ability of a person to reflect the surrounding reality as the impact of its specific objects related to a certain class of phenomena. At the same time, the brain clearly distinguishes between the object, the background, the contour of perception.

3. apperception - the dependence of perception on the previous experience of a person. Apperception gives an active character to perception. Perceiving objects, a person expresses his attitude towards them. 4. The meaningfulness of perception shows that the objects perceived by a person have a certain life meaning for him. 5. constancy of perception is the constancy in perception, which is determined by the knowledge of the physical properties of the object, as well as by the fact that the object of perception is perceived in the circle of other objects known to man. It ensures the constancy of the perceived size, shape and color of objects when changing distance, angle, illumination. The constancy of perception is explained by the experience acquired in the process of individual development of the personality. 6. The integrity of perception is expressed in the fact that the images of reflected objects appear in the mind of a person in the aggregate of many of their qualities and characteristics, even if some of these qualities are not perceived at the moment. 7. Categoriality is manifested in the fact that perception is of a generalized nature, and we designate each perceived object with a word-concept, refer to a certain class. 8. historicity of perception.

Of all the psychological theories, the problem of perception has been the most gestalt psychologists and from their point of view the laws of perception:

1. Proximity - the closer objects are to each other in the visual field, the more likely they are organized into single, integral images; 2. similarity of processes in the visual field: the more unified and integral images, the more likely they are to be organized; 3. continuation - the more elements in the visual field are in places corresponding to the continuation of the regular sequence, i.e. function as parts of familiar contours, the more likely they are to organize into single holistic images; 4. isolation - the more the elements of the visual field form closed wholes, the more readily they will be organized into separate images.

Theories of perception:

Associative theories of perception. (Müller, Mach, Helmholtz, Goering, Wundt). A perceived image is a complex combination of primary elements - sensations, and a sensation is a conscious state of a sense organ that has been exposed to an isolated external stimulus. Consequently, the associative theories of perception are based on the principle of the specific energy of the sense organs and the receptor concept of sensations. The unification of sensations into perception occurs through associations of contiguity and similarity, where the leading role is given to past experience.

Structuralist school (Titchener): perception is a complex of sensations, therefore, the task of a psychologist is to find elementary sensations in his experience through self-observation. This is a method of analytical introspection. The theory of J. Gibson. Perception is the process of obtaining information about the environment, as a result of which the uncertainty of the position of the organism in it decreases. Associationists incorrectly asserted that point stimuli are reflected, since a single stimulus cannot carry any information about the object. Perception is an active process. Activity is necessary, since there is no initial isomorphism between the objects of the external world and their perception. Active movements of the whole organism and sense organs play a decisive role. It is important that the movements are highlighted in the stimulation stream in order to better navigate the environment. The theory of perceptual hypotheses by J. Bruner. Perception involves the act of categorization. We apply some influence to the input of the organism, and it responds, i.e. refers it to the corresponding class of things or phenomena.

Perception is a process of categorization: it is a movement from attributes to categories, and in many cases it occurs "unconsciously". Gestalt theory of perception. There are 3 types of gestalt: physical gestalt - studies outside; physiological gestalt - the study of the substance of the brain and neuro-connections; phenomenal gestalt - the study of what we see.

Gestalt theory deals with phenomena that are found in the visual field, which in turn is a dynamic distribution of energy, and its parts are interdependent due to their participation in the whole. A field is structured to the extent that within it there are differences in intensity or quality. To the extent that a field is structured, it contains potential energy capable of producing (perceptual) work. By visual field we mean the spatial structure (construct) into which the phenomena of the visual field can be ordered. The visible image is set by stimulation. Spatial relationships are set in the outside world through elements. Therefore, it is not the elements that are perceived, but the relationships that are assembled into a holistic image.

Topic: The concept of personality in psychology. Psychological structure of personality.

Personality is the basic concept in psychology - it is the social quality of the individual; subject of public relations. Personality - 1) an individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity; 2) the systemic quality of the individual determined by involvement in social relations, which is formed in joint activities and communication.

Personality, according to Leontiev, is born twice: 1. preschool age - the beginning of the formation of a hierarchy of motives (obedience to social norms); 2. adolescence - is expressed in the emergence of the desire and ability to realize their motives, and also carries out active work on their subordination and resubordination.

Leontiev identifies several personality parameters: 1. The richness of the individual's connections with the world; 2. The degree of hierarchization of activities, their motives. Thus, a high degree of hierarchization of motives is expressed in the fact that a person, as it were, tries on his actions to the main motive-goal for him - the so-called. life purpose. 3. General type of personality structure.

The structure of a personality is a stable configuration of the main motivational lines hierarchized within itself. The motivational sphere of personality is always multi-top. “The internal correlation of the main motivational lines in the totality of human activities form, as it were, a general “psychological profile of the personality”.