Involuntary attention is the simplest kind of attention, which is peculiar to animals in a peculiar form. It is already observed in a small child, but at the first stages it is unstable and relatively narrow in scope (a child of early and preschool age very quickly loses attention to a new stimulus that has arisen, his orientation reflex quickly fades away or is inhibited by the appearance of any other stimulus), and he cannot distribute his attention between several stimuli, returning to the previous one and not losing the previous one from the field of his attention. Luria A.R. Lectures on General Psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006. - 181-184 p. It is often called passive, or forced, since it arises and is maintained independently of the person's consciousness. Activity captures a person by itself, because of its fascination, entertainment or surprise. However, this understanding of the causes of involuntary attention is very simplified. Usually, when involuntary attention occurs, we are dealing with a whole range of causes. This complex includes various physical, psychophysiological and mental causes. They are interconnected with each other, but they can be roughly divided into the following four categories.

The first group of causes is related to the nature of the external stimulus. Here it is necessary to take into account, first of all, the strength, or intensity, of the stimulus. Any sufficiently strong irritation - loud noises, bright light, a strong push, a sharp smell - involuntarily attracts attention. In this case, the most significant role is played not so much by the absolute as by the relative strength of the stimulus. For example, if we are passionate about something, we do not notice weak stimuli. This is explained by the fact that their intensity is not large enough compared to the intensity of the stimuli that make up the object or conditions of our activity. At the same time, in other conditions, for example, at night, when we rest, we can react very sensitively to all sorts of rustles, creaks, etc.

The second group of causes that cause involuntary attention is related to the correspondence of external stimuli to the internal state of a person, and, above all, to his needs. So, a full and a hungry person will react completely differently to a conversation about food. A person experiencing a feeling of hunger will involuntarily pay attention to a conversation that talks about food. From the side of physiology, the action of these causes finds its explanation in the principle of dominant proposed by A. A. Ukhtomsky.

The third group of reasons is connected with the general orientation of the personality. What interests us the most and what constitutes the scope of our interests, including professional ones, as a rule, attracts attention, even if we encounter this by accident. That is why, walking down the street, a policeman draws attention to an incorrectly parked car, and an architect or artist - to the beauty of an old building. Consequently, the general orientation of the personality and the presence of previous experience directly affects the occurrence of involuntary attention.

As the fourth independent group of causes that cause involuntary attention, one should name those feelings that a stimulus causes in us. What is interesting to us, what causes us a certain emotional reaction, is the most important cause of involuntary attention. Maklakov A.G. General psychology: A textbook for universities. - M.: Piter, 2013. - 117 p.

Within the framework of involuntary attention, three subspecies can be distinguished, while the degree of individual contribution to the act of attention gradually increases from the first subspecies to the third.

• 1. Forced attention is determined by such factors as the intensity of the stimulus, its extent in time and space, movement - everything that indicates its significance from the point of view of survival. The subject's contribution here is minimal, although not completely excluded. For example, people differ in their perception threshold, and a stimulus that is intense enough for one person to attract attention will simply not be noticed by another person.
• 2. Involuntary attention. This variety is defined as dependent not so much on the specific, but on the individual experience of the object. It develops on the same instinctive basis, but, as it were, in a delayed manner, in the process of spontaneous learning and adjusting a person to certain conditions of life. To the extent that these processes and conditions coincide or do not coincide among representatives of different age and social groups, general and individual zones of objects of attention and inattention are formed. Vygotsky L.S. History of the development of higher mental functions//Sobr. cit.: In 6 volumes. T.3 / Rep. ed. A.V. Zaporozhets. - M.: Pedagogy, 1983. - 287s.
• 3. Habitual attention, being essentially involuntary, independent of our desires and intentions, is even more individualized. It is directly related to a person's past experience. An example would be professional experience. The activity of the cognizing subject here is still small. His interest is individual, but dictated by past experience, and not current intentions.

The emergence of involuntary attention can be caused by the peculiarity of the acting stimulus, and also be determined by the correspondence of these stimuli to past experience or the mental state of a person. Sometimes involuntary attention can be useful, both at work and at home, it gives us the opportunity to timely identify the appearance of an irritant and take the necessary measures, and facilitates inclusion in habitual activities. But at the same time, involuntary attention can have a negative effect on the success of the activity performed, distracting us from the main thing in the task being solved, reducing the productivity of work in general. For example, unusual noises, shouts, and flashes of light during work distract our attention and interfere with concentration.

Let's consider two classifications.

1. Attention can be external(directed to the surroundings) and internal(focus on one's own experiences, thoughts, feelings).

Such a division is to some extent arbitrary, since often people are immersed in their own thoughts, pondering their behavior.

2. The classification is based on the level of volitional regulation. Attention stands out involuntary, arbitrary, after-arbitrary.

involuntary attention arises without any effort on the part of the person, and there is no purpose and special intention.

Involuntary attention may occur:

1) due to certain characteristics of the stimulus.

These features include:

a) strength, and not absolute, but relative (in complete darkness, the light from a match can attract attention);

b) surprise;

c) novelty and unusualness;

d) contrast (among Europeans, a person of a Negroid race is more likely to attract attention);

e) mobility (the action of the beacon is based on this, which does not just burn, but flashes);

2) from the inner motives of the individual.

This includes the mood of a person, his interests and needs.

For example, the ancient facade of a building is more likely to attract the attention of a person interested in architecture than other passers-by.

Arbitrary attention arises when a goal is consciously set, for the achievement of which strong-willed efforts are applied.

Voluntary attention is most likely in the following situations:

1) when a person is clearly aware of his duties and specific tasks in the performance of activities;

2) when the activity is carried out under habitual conditions, for example: the habit of doing everything according to the regime creates in advance an attitude towards voluntary attention;

3) when the performance of the activity concerns any indirect interests, for example: playing scales on the piano is not very exciting, but necessary if you want to be a good musician;

4) when favorable conditions are created during the performance of activities, but this does not mean complete silence, since weak side stimuli (for example, quiet music) can even increase work efficiency.

Post-voluntary attention is intermediate between involuntary and voluntary, combining the features of these two types.

It arises as an arbitrary one, but after some time, the activity performed becomes so interesting that it no longer requires additional volitional efforts.

Thus, attention characterizes the activity and selectivity of a person in his interaction with others.

2. Traditionally, there are five properties of attention:

1) concentration (concentration);

2) sustainability;

4) distribution;

5) switching.

Concentration(concentration) - attention is kept on any object or activity, while being distracted from everything else.

Sustainability- this is a long retention of attention, which increases if a person is active when performing actions with objects or performing activities.

Stability decreases if the object of attention is mobile, constantly changing.

Volume attention is determined by the number of objects that a person is able to perceive clearly enough at the same time. For most adults, the amount of attention is 4–6 objects, for a schoolchild it is 2–5 objects.

Distribution of attention- the ability of a person to perform two or even more activities simultaneously, when a person is simultaneously focused on several objects.

As a rule, distribution occurs when any of the activities is mastered to such an extent that it requires little control.

For example, a gymnast can solve simple arithmetic problems while walking on a beam that is 10 cm wide, while a person who is far from sports is unlikely to do this.

Switching attention- the ability of a person to focus alternately on one or another activity (object) in connection with the emergence of a new task.

Attention also has its drawbacks, the most common of which is absent-mindedness, which is expressed in two forms:

1) frequent involuntary distractibility in the process of performing activities.

They say about such people that they have “fluttering”, “sliding” attention. May occur as a result of:

a) insufficient development of attention;

b) feeling unwell, tired;

c) for students - neglect of educational material;

d) lack of interest;

2) excessive focus on one object or activity, when no attention is paid to anything else.

For example, a person, thinking about something important for himself, may, crossing the road, not notice the red color of the traffic light and fall under the wheels of a car.

So, the positive properties of attention help to perform any type of activity more efficiently and efficiently.

3. The attention of a preschooler is characterized by such qualities as involuntary, lack of concentration, instability.

With admission to school, the role of attention rises sharply, because it is a good level of its development that is the key to the success of mastering educational activities.

How can the teacher organize the attention of students during the lesson?

Let us name only some of the pedagogical techniques that increase the attentiveness of schoolchildren.

1. The use of voice and emotional modulation, gesticulation attracts the attention of students, i.e. the teacher should constantly change the intonation, pitch, volume of the voice (from ordinary speech to a whisper), while using adequate facial expressions and gestures.

Be mindful of gestures of openness and goodwill (see topic "Communication").

2. Change of pace: maintaining a pause, a sharp change in speed, a transition from deliberately slow speech to a tongue twister.

3. In the course of explaining the new material, students should take notes on the key (key) words, you can invite someone alone to do this on the board.

At the end of the explanation, the students take turns reading their notes.

4. In the course of the explanation, interrupt the speech at words that are quite obvious to the listeners, requiring them to continue.

The activity of schoolchildren should be encouraged in accessible ways.

5. "Memory lapses", when the teacher allegedly forgets something quite obvious to the audience and ask him to help him "remember" (dates, names, terms, etc.).

6. The use of various types of questions in the course of explaining new material: leading, control, rhetorical, clarifying, counter, questions-suggestions, etc.

7. Changing the types of activities during the lesson significantly increases the attentiveness of schoolchildren (for example, in a mathematics lesson, this can be an oral count, a solution at the blackboard, answers on cards, etc.).

8. A clear organization of the lesson, when the teacher does not have to be distracted by side actions, leaving the children left to their own devices.

If you need to write something on the board, it is better to do it in advance during recess.

When teaching younger students, it is not advisable to interrupt their activities with additional instructions such as: “Do not forget to start with the red line”, “Remember vocabulary words”, etc.

After all, the work has already begun, and the demands "after" will only distract the children.

It is also unacceptable, when performing collective work, to make loud remarks to individual children (“Masha, do not stoop”, “Sasha, do not fidget”), thereby distracting other class students from work.

For children of primary school age, it is important to think over changes, because children must have time to relax, but at the same time quickly join the process of the next lesson.

Compliance with the considered pedagogical conditions for increasing children's attention will make it possible to more successfully organize the student's educational activities.

Good attention is necessary not only for schoolchildren, but also for adults.

Let's take a closer look ways to improve attention.

2. It is important to systematically exercise in the simultaneous observation of several objects, while being able to separate the main from the secondary.

3. You should train switching attention: the speed of transition from one activity to another, the ability to highlight the main thing, the ability to change the order of switching (figuratively, this is called the development of a “perception route”).

4. The presence of volitional qualities contributes to the development of stability of attention.

You need to be able to force yourself to focus when you don’t feel like it.

It is necessary to alternate difficult tasks with easy ones, interesting ones with uninteresting ones.

5. Frequent use of intellectual games (chess, puzzles, etc.) also develops attention.

6. The best way to develop attention is to be attentive to the people around you.

Thus, one should develop and improve one's attention throughout one's life.

Depending on the participation of the will, it can be involuntary or arbitrary. The most simple and genetically initial involuntary attention is called passive, forced, because it arises regardless of the goals facing the person. The direction and concentration of mental processes will be arbitrary if a person knows that he needs to perform certain work in accordance with the goal and decision made.

involuntary attention

Involuntary attention is the most ancient kind of attention. Its occurrence is associated with various physical, psychophysiological and mental causes, which are also closely related to each other, but for convenience they were divided into categories:

1. The first group of causes is associated with the nature of the external stimulus with its strength or intensity. Involuntarily, this attention will be attracted by loud sounds, bright lights, pungent odors, etc. During the day, compared to night, a person reacts less to weak sounds, rustles, because their intensity is low. At night, a person reacts very sensitively to these same sounds. Involuntary attention arises and is maintained regardless of the person's consciousness, and the reason for its occurrence always lies in the environment;
2. The second group of reasons is related to the correspondence of external stimuli to the internal state of a person. For example, a well-fed and hungry person reacts differently to a conversation about food;
3. The orientation of the personality form the third group of reasons. A person pays attention most of all to the sphere of his interests, including professional interests. For example, a policeman will pay attention to a car parked incorrectly, an editor will find errors in the text of a book, an artist will notice the beauty of an old building. The general orientation of the personality, therefore, and the presence of previous experience, directly affect the occurrence of involuntary attention;
4. The fourth independent group of causes is related to the attitude to the stimulus. What a person is interested in causes a certain emotional reaction in him and a positive or negative feeling is developed. For example, an interesting book, a pleasant interlocutor, an exciting film can rive the attention of a person for a long time, this happens by itself. I must say that unpleasant stimuli also attract attention, but neutral stimuli attract attention much less often.

Conclusion

Thus, involuntary attention has no purpose and volitional effort.

Arbitrary attention

Voluntary attention differs from involuntary attention in that it is controlled by a conscious goal and has efforts to actively maintain it. This type of attention was developed as a result of labor efforts, therefore it is often called strong-willed, active, deliberate.

For example, a person's attention is consciously directed to the decision to engage in some activity, even if it is not interesting. Voluntary attention in a sense is suppression, a struggle with involuntary attention.

Active regulation of the course of mental processes is the main function of voluntary attention, so it is qualitatively different from involuntary attention. Voluntary attention arose from involuntary in the process of conscious human activity. It can help you change your emotional state.

Arbitrary attention has social causes of its origin, it does not mature in the body, but is formed when the child communicates with adults. Selecting an object from the environment, an adult points to it and calls it a word. In response to this signal, the child repeats the word or grasps the object itself. It turns out that the given object for the child stands out from the external field.

Arbitrary attention is closely connected with speech, feelings, interests, previous experience of a person, but their influence is indirect.

The formation of voluntary attention is associated with the formation of consciousness. In a 2-year-old child, consciousness has not yet been formed, then voluntary attention is at the stage of development.

Experts identify another type of attention, which is purposeful and initially requires volitional efforts. Later, a person, as it were, "enters" the work, for him not only the result, but also the content and process of activity become significant and interesting.

Such attention N.F. Dobrynin called post-arbitrary. For example, when solving some complex problem, the student solves it only because it needs to be solved. When the right move is planned and the task becomes clear, its solution can captivate. Arbitrary attention became as if involuntary. Post-voluntary attention remains tied to conscious goals and supported by conscious interests, which distinguishes it from truly involuntary attention. Since there is no or almost no volitional effort here, it will not be similar to arbitrary attention. Post-voluntary attention is characterized by prolonged concentration, intense mental activity, and high labor productivity.

Types of attention are shown in the diagram.

Mechanisms of attention

As a result of research by Soviet and foreign scientists, many new data have been obtained that reveal the neurophysiological mechanisms of the flow of attention phenomena. The essence of attention lies in the selective selection of influences. According to the data obtained, this is possible against the background of general wakefulness of the body associated with active brain activity.

In the state of wakefulness of a person, a number of stages can be distinguished. For example, gradually a deep sleep can be replaced by a drowsy state, which will turn into a state of calm wakefulness. This state is called relaxed or sensory rest. A relaxed state can be replaced by a high level of wakefulness - active wakefulness or attention wakefulness, which turns into a state of sharp emotional excitement, fear, anxiety - this is the so-called excessive wakefulness.

In a state of increased wakefulness, active selective attention is possible, but concentration difficulties arise both against the background of relaxed and against the background of excessive wakefulness. Such changes in wakefulness are continuous and are a function of the levels of activity of nervous processes. Any nervous activation is expressed in increased wakefulness, and its indicator is a change in the electrical activity of the brain.

In various orienting reactions, a transition from calm wakefulness to alertness of attention is manifested. These reactions are very complex and are associated with the activity of a significant part of the organism. This guideline includes:

• External movements;
• Changing the sensitivity of certain analyzers;
• Change in the nature of metabolism;
• Changes in cardiac, vascular and galvanic skin reactions;
• Change in the electrical activity of the brain.

The physiological basis of attention, therefore, is the general activation of brain activity, but it does not explain the features of the selective flow of attention processes.

To clarify the physiological foundations of attention, the principle of dominant A.A. is of great importance. Ukhtomsky, according to which the brain always has a dominant focus of excitation. All excitations that go to the brain, he attracts to himself and dominates them.

Such a focus arises not only as a result of the strength of this stimulus, but also the internal state of the entire nervous system.

In the regulation of higher voluntary forms of attention, according to many researchers, the frontal lobes of the brain also play an important role.

According to modern data, thus, attention processes are associated with both the cortex and subcortical formations, only their role in the regulation of different forms of attention is different.

involuntary attention plays an important role in the learning process. It is necessary to speak about involuntary attention in the case when the direction and concentration of consciousness are not due to the volitional act of a person.

In the appearance of such attention, the role of a person’s habits, the correspondence of the stimulus to the internal state of the organism, the constant expectation of something, etc., play the role. Involuntary attention is based on an unconditional orienting reflex, which manifests itself in a constant readiness to respond to a newly appeared stimulus.

One of the factors that cause the process of involuntary attention are potent stimuli.

Very strong auditory, visual, skin, olfactory, proprioceptive, organic stimuli, acting separately on individual analyzers or in a complex on a number of analyzers, cause the process of involuntary attention.

The factors organizing the process of involuntary attention include contrast stimuli.

Involuntary attention is also attracted by emotionally significant stimuli. Objects that evoke a feeling of joy, surprise, aesthetic feelings, feelings of anger and others, at the same time cause involuntary attention.

Arbitrary attention is called such attention, which arises under the influence of a consciously set goal and volitional effort.

Arbitrary attention is due to the volitional act of a person and is associated with a consciously set goal.

Arbitrary attention arose in the process of labor activity. Arbitrary attention to something is established as a result of awareness of the need to be attentive to this particular object or action. In voluntary attention, the activity of the second signaling system is clearly visible.

The decisive role in human life and activity belongs to voluntary attention. In this regard, its study and training is given special importance. In a person at an early age, the school and the activities associated with being in it are of decisive importance in the development of voluntary attention. The attention of an adult develops and improves along with the personality.

There are also externally directed And intradirectional attention.

Externally directed attention is the selection of objects in the external environment.

Intradirected attention is the selection of ideal objects from the fund of the psyche itself.

Activity attention – voluntary attention, involuntary, post-voluntary.

Orientation attention(internal and external attention) consists in the fact that objects that are of vital importance for a person at a given time attract his attention, while other objects that do not have such significance remain outside him.

Concentration attention(high, low, very low)– it is a process of deepening into activity, distraction from everything that has nothing to do with it.

Orientation and concentration of attention are associated with the orientation of the individual, his beliefs, interests, depend on the abilities, temperament and character of this individual.

Latitude attention(volume of attention, distribution of attention)– uniform distribution of consciousness on several objects.

At this stage, there is still no sustained attention. Sustainability of attention becomes essential when the most significant objects for this activity are identified from the available objects.

Volume attention is determined by the number of objects that are simultaneously covered by attention, which a person can simultaneously be aware of with the same degree of clarity.

The average amount of attention in adults is 4-6 characters, and in children - 3-4 characters. When presenting words - up to 14 characters. The volume of attention increases as the exercise, preliminary familiarization with objects and the acquisition of knowledge about them. The amount of attention depends on the professional activity of a person, his experience, mental development.

distribution attention called such an organization of mental activity in which a person simultaneously performs two or more different actions– focus of consciousness on the most significant objects.

The distribution of attention is a prerequisite in a number of professions, including the profession of a medical worker. The ability to distribute attention often depends on the correct organization and productivity of labor. The distribution of attention is not an innate quality, it can be developed through exercises.

Concentration attention – intense focus of consciousness on the most significant objects.

The concentration and amount of attention depend both on the characteristics of the individual and her condition, and on the nature of the activity to which attention is directed, and on its object.

The disease can reduce the ability to concentrate for various reasons: due to the weakness of brain cells, reduced activity, asthenia. This is often observed in some somatic diseases.

A feature of attention is its stability (sustained attention, unstable), i.e., the possibility of long-term concentration of attention on a particular object.

The more uniform the operations, the objects included in the action, the greater the tension of attention this action requires. The less distracting stimuli there are in the environment, in the thoughts and experiences of a person, in his body (pain sensations, etc.), the easier it is to maintain the stability of attention.

In this regard, in order to mental hygiene in enterprises where work requires intense attention, distractions should be eliminated.

The stability of attention is facilitated by the change of objects of activity and actions performed. Monotony is always boring.

hesitation attention represents periodically repeating deviations from the main object of attention and return to it.

Psychologically, this is expressed in a decrease in attention to the main object of activity and the emergence of attention in the direction of new objects. However, with the help of an effort of will, i.e., verbal signaling, attention again returns to the main object of activity as soon as the nerve cells that perform this activity restore their work during the period of inhibition.

Switching attention(easy, difficult). This is an arbitrary transfer of attention from one object or activity to another object or activity.

Switching attention depends on the significance of the object or activity towards which the focus of attention changes. It also depends on interest: more interesting objects or activities make it easier to switch attention in their direction. Switching attention depends on the volitional qualities of the individual.

Intensity attention(high, low).

Attention distraction. This is an involuntary shift of attention from one object to another.

Distractibility occurs when extraneous stimuli act on a person who is currently engaged in some kind of activity. Distractibility can be external or internal.

External Distractibility arises under the influence of external stimuli, while voluntary attention becomes involuntary.

Internal distractibility of attention arises under the influence of strong feelings, extraneous emotions, in the absence of interest and a sense of responsibility for the business in which a person is currently engaged.

Absent-mindedness. Absent-mindedness is the inability of a person to focus on something specific for a long time - the focus of consciousness on the parallel execution of several actions. Distracted attention is one of the states of disorganized consciousness.

There are two types of absent-mindedness: imaginary and real absent-mindedness.

Imaginary absent-mindedness- this is a person's inattention to the immediately surrounding objects and phenomena, caused by the extreme focus of his attention on one thing. Imaginary absent-mindedness is the result of great concentration and narrowness of attention.

Genuine distraction- a person with difficulty establishes and holds voluntary attention on any object or action. To do this, he needs much more willpower than an undistracted person. The cause of true absent-mindedness can be neurasthenia, anemia, a disease of the nasopharynx, which makes it difficult for air to enter the lungs and, consequently, impoverishes the oxygen supply to the brain cells.

Sometimes absent-mindedness is the result of physical and mental fatigue and overwork, the result of difficult experiences. One of the reasons for true absent-mindedness may be overloading the brain with a large number of impressions, as well as the dispersion of interests.

Absent-mindedness sometimes occurs as a result of a change in impressions, when a person does not have the opportunity to focus on each of them separately, and also due to the action of monotonous, monotonous, insignificant stimuli or as a result of intoxication of the body.