Early New Time. new time

Section III . EARLY MODERN TIME

Western Europe in XVI century

In the 16th century, major changes took place in Europe. Chief among them is the formation of large and powerful monarchies that claim to be a consolidating force and promote the formation of nations; the fall of the political and spiritual authority of the Catholic Church. The peculiarity of the era was that the social forces that fought against feudalism and the church that illuminated it had not yet broken with the religious worldview. Therefore, the general slogan of the mass anti-feudal movements was a call for church reform, for the revival of the true, apostolic church.

1. Niccolo Machiavelli

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) philosopher, diplomat and politician, entered the history of political and legal thought as the author of The Sovereign, which brought him world fame. The writings of Machiavelli laid the foundation for the political and legal ideology of modern times. Analyzing the work of N. Machiavelli, it is fundamentally important to understand that in the human qualities and behavior of the sovereign, he reveals the methods, patterns of political activity personified in the ruler of the state itself. In this setting to reveal the nature of the state, and not in drawing up a portrait of the ruler needed by the country and giving him recommendations, lies the deep conceptual meaning of "The Sovereign".

His political doctrine free from theology, it is based on the experience of contemporary city-states, the rulers of the ancient world, on the knowledge of the interests and passions of a person, participants in political life. Machiavelli believed that the study of the past, taking into account the psychology of people makes it possible to foresee the future and determine the means and methods of action.

In politics, one should always count on the worst, and not on the good and ideal. State- there is a certain relationship between the government and subjects, based on the fear or love of the latter. At the same time, fear should not develop into hatred. The main thing is the real ability of the government to command subjects. The purpose of the state and the basis of its strength is the security of the individual and the inviolability of property; “A person who is deprived of any benefit never forgets it.” "The most dangerous thing for a ruler is to encroach on the property of his subjects."

The benefit of freedom (the inviolability of private property and the security of the individual) - the goal and basis of the strength of the state, is best ensured in republic. Reproducing, following Polybius, ideas about the emergence and cycle of forms of government, he, like ancient thinkers, prefers a mixed form (monarchy, aristocracy and democracy). The peculiarity of his teaching is that he considered a mixed republic the result of struggling social groups.

Machiavelli expresses his own, different from the generally accepted among politicians, people's opinion: the masses of the people are more constant, more honest, wiser and more reasonable than the sovereign. The people often make mistakes in general matters, but very rarely in particular ones. Even a rebellious people is less terrible than a tyrant: the people can be persuaded with a word, a tyrant can be "get rid of only with iron." The cruelty of the people is directed against those who encroach on the common good, the cruelty of the sovereign - who "can encroach on his own personal good." He distinguishes from the people know. There is no society where there would be no confrontation between the nobility and the people. The ambition of the former is the source of unrest in the state, their claims are boundless. But to know is inevitable and necessary for the state. It is from its midst that statesmen, officials, and military leaders come forward. A free state must be based on the compromises of the people and the nobility; the essence of the "mixed republic" lies in the fact that the state bodies include aristocratic and democratic institutions that play the role of a deterrent.

Concerning nobility(“those who idly live on the income from their huge estates, not caring in the least about cultivating the land or earning a living by the necessary work”), then Machiavelli spoke of him with hatred and called for his destruction. The nobles are "a decisive enemy of all citizenship" and everyone "wishing to create a republic ... will not be able to carry out his plan without destroying all of them to the last."

For creation of a free Italian republic Machiavelli proposes a number of measures. Among them, liberation from foreign troops and mercenaries, from petty tyrants and nobles, from the pope and the intrigues of the Catholic Church. In addition, we need a sole ruler with absolute and extraordinary power, who establishes wise laws and orders. He associated the inviolability of laws with ensuring public safety, and thus with the very tranquility of the people. For Machiavelli right- an instrument of power, an expression of power. Everywhere the basis of power "is interdependent, good laws and a good army." Therefore, the main thought, concern and deed of the ruler should be war, military organization and military science - "for war is the only duty that the ruler cannot impose on another."

Machiavelli denies the Italian city-states the power of the people as in a real perspective, and the only political form capable of slowing down the process of degradation is autocracy. “Where (material) is corrupted, even well-ordered laws will not help, unless they are prescribed by a person who enforces them with such great energy that the corrupted material becomes good.” However, he considered tyranny a temporary measure, a bitter but necessary medicine, the need for which would disappear as soon as the development of the disease was stopped.

Machiavelli had a special relationship with religion. This is an important means of politics, a powerful factor in influencing the minds and customs of people. It "helps to command the troops, inspire the people, restrain the virtuous people and shame the vicious." The state must use religion to guide its subjects. But Machiavelli is critical of Christianity, which preaches humility and humility, and highly appreciates the religion of antiquity, which honors "the highest good in the greatness of the spirit, in the strength of the body and in everything that makes people extremely strong." He was also negative about the clergy, with bad examples that deprived the country of "all piety." In this regard, Machiavelli allowed the transformation of religion, but unlike the leaders of the Reformation, he considered the basis of the reform not the ideas of early Christianity, but the ancient religion wholly subservient to policy goals. His conclusion that it is not politics in the service of religion, but religion in the service of politics - sharply diverged from medieval ideas about the relationship between church and state.

Machiavelli resolutely separated politics from morality. Policy(institution, organization and activities of the state) is a special field of activity, which has its own laws that need to be studied and comprehended, and not deduced from St. Scriptures and construct speculatively.

The era of the Middle Ages affected the views of the thinker about the methods methods and techniques political activity. They are completely separated from morality. If morality operates with such categories as "good" - "evil", then politics - "benefit" - "harm". Therefore, the actions of politicians should be evaluated not from the point of view of morality, but according to their results, according to their attitude towards the good of the state.

The methods of exercising power are not only military force, but also cunning, deceit, and deceit. And therefore, political rules and moral norms are incompatible, a statesman should not be faithful to treaties if this harms the interests of society. He must be able to decide on "great, virtuoso atrocities, meanness and betrayal." "Let him blame his actions, if only to justify the results." The ideal statesman for Machiavelli was the Duke of Romagna Cesare Borgia, a genius of cunning in politics.

Niccolo Machiavelli

(1469-1527)

"Sovereign"

Uniting people to protect life and property, achieve the good of the people

His teaching is free from theology, based on the experience of communes and policies, knowledge of the interests and passions of man.

State

The conditions for stability are good laws and a strong army

The origin of power - "all means are good"

Forms of government

Correct:

Monarchy

Aristocracy

People's government

Wrong:

Oligarchy

mob power

Ideal - mixed republic

Right- an instrument of power, an expression of power

Religion- an important means of politics, but Christianity weakens the state, preaching humility

Policy- a special field of activity, which has its own patterns, which must be studied and comprehended, and not deduced from St. scriptures and not construct speculatively

Politics and morality are incompatible

Criteria of political activity - "benefit" - "harm",

a politician should not be faithful to his word and agreement

Machiavellianism- deceit, deceit and treachery in politics

At the same time, Machiavelli believed that treachery and cruelty should be committed in such a way that the authority of the authorities would not be undermined. From this he deduced a favorite rule of politics: "People should either be caressed or destroyed, because a person can avenge a small evil, but cannot avenge a big one." "It is better to kill than to threaten - threatening, you create and warn the enemy, killing - you get rid of the enemy completely." The ruler should pay special attention to creating his own image. “The most important thing for the sovereign is to try with all his actions to create for himself the glory of a great man, endowed with an outstanding mind ... everyone knows what you look like, few know what you really are, and these latter will not dare to challenge the opinion of the majority, behind which the state is worth.

The rules given here and other rules of politics have received the name "Machiavellianism" in science as a symbol of political cunning. Thus, Machiavelli formulated and substantiated the main program requirements of the bourgeoisie: the inviolability of private property, the security of the person and property, the republic as the best form of ensuring the "benefits of freedom", the condemnation of the nobility, the subordination of religion to politics. His ideas, with the exception of "Machiavellianism", were accepted by Spinoza, Rousseau and other theorists.

2. Political and legal ideas of the Reformation

The Reformation (lat. reformatio - perestroika) - anti-feudal in socio-economic and political essence, anti-Catholic (religious) in ideological form, a movement in the 16th century. in Western and Central Europe. Its main focus is Germany.

The beginning of the Reformation was laid by a theologian professor at the University of Wittenberg Martin Luther (1483-1546) when, on October 31, 1517, he nailed to the door of the church "95 theses" against indulgence. The starting point of Luther's teaching is the thesis that salvation is achieved solely by faith, relying on Holy Scripture, he argued that every believer is justified by it personally before God, becoming here, as it were, a priest to himself and, as a result, does not need a church (the idea of ​​​​omnipotence) . What pertains to religion is a matter for the conscience of the Christian; the source of faith is "the pure word of God" (Holy Scripture). And thus, everything that found confirmation in the texts of the Bible was considered indisputable and sacred, and the entire hierarchy of the Catholic Church, monasticism, most of the rites and services were considered as a human institution, subject to rational evaluation and criticism, but in fact were denied.

Own relation to secular power Luther based it on the notion that man lives in two realms: in the realm of the "Gospel" (the religious realm) and in the realm of the "law" (the kingdom of the earth). If the world consisted of genuine Christians (true believers), then there would be no need for laws and rulers. And since “there are always more evil”, God established two governments - spiritual (for believers) and secular (to restrain the evil). A true Christian should care about other people; therefore he pays taxes, honors his superiors, serves, does everything that benefits secular power. The main thing is that a Christian should not use the sword for selfish interests, and then "guards, executioners, lawyers and other rabble" can be Christians. As for the arbitrariness of power, Luther, referring to the apostles Peter and Paul about its divine establishment, justified it by saying that since the creation of the world, “a wise prince is a rare bird”, “if a prince manages to be smart ... then this is the greatest miracle. ..". However, God commanded to obey any authority. But the laws of the prince do not extend to matters of faith.

The period from the end of the fifteenth century to the beginning of the eighteenth century. in historiography one can find a different name - late Middle Ages, early modern times; the era of proto-industrial civilization, if we are talking about the early stage of the genesis of industrial society; time of the Renaissance in culture and the Reformation. At this time, new behavioral stereotypes, ethical norms, worldview ideas, stereotypes appear, which differ sharply from the traditional society that we meet in the Middle Ages. Early modern time covers about 250 years. This is the period from the end of the 15th to the middle of the 18th century.

The period from the end of the 15th century to the middle of the 18th century is the time of the crisis of traditional society, the birth and development of capitalism, and the disintegration of feudal foundations. Capitalist production appeared in the large cities of Italy and the Netherlands at the end of the 14th-15th centuries, but K. Marx attributed the emergence of the capitalist way of life only to the 16th century. Since not all European countries were equally affected by the emergence of capitalist production. In some of them, capitalist forms did not have noticeable success, and in connection with this, the growth of commodity-money relations and trade was used by the nobility to enrich themselves, in these countries there is a return to gross forms of feudal exploitation of the peasantry - serfdom and corvee (for example, the Czech Hussite wars).

The 16th century was the century of the formation of a new thinking in Europe, a new Man, the historians of the liberal school spoke out. A similar point of view belongs to our domestic historian, Timofey Nikolaevich Granovsky. Timofei Nikolaevich Granovsky gave a brilliant definition of the era: “The Middle Ages had their own geography, their own state, their own church and science. In the 15th century, Columbus appears and pushes the boundaries that existed in the Middle Ages. At the beginning of the 16th century, Machiavelli appears, a sharper rejection of medieval theories could not be imagined... The unity of the church was broken by the Reformation... Medieval science, scholasticism, once so brilliant and bold... is broken by the efforts of the humanists.

Consider the development of the progressive states of Western Europe?

1.In the economic sphere there was a progressive decomposition of feudal forms of economy, there was a process of PNK, the emergence of a new economic order.

2.In the social sphere – the class stratification of traditional society was eroded, new professional-class groups, classes of the bourgeoisie and hired workers arose. Gradually emerging bourgeois.

3. Arise new forms of ideology: such were humanism, reformation creeds (Lutheranism, Zwinglianism, Calvinism) and radical sectarian teachings with their leveling ideas. Renewal of Catholic Christianity.

4. Significant changes have also taken place in the political structure of society. Early modern times - the time of new forms of the state - were replaced by class-representative absolute monarchies.

5. The 16th century is also famous for the first acts bourgeois revolutions. This is the Reformation and the Peasant War in Germany in 1525, and the Dutch bourgeois revolution, the result of which was the formation of the first bourgeois republic in Europe - the Republic of the United Provinces. All these events are of world-historical significance.

new time

New time(or new story) - a period in the history of mankind, located between the Middle Ages and modern times.

The concept of "new history" appeared in European historical and philosophical thought in the Renaissance as an element of the three-term division of history proposed by humanists into ancient, middle and new. From the point of view of humanists, the flourishing of secular science and culture during the Renaissance, that is, not a socio-economic, but a spiritual and cultural factor, was the criterion for determining the "new time", its "novelty" in comparison with the previous era. However, this period is rather contradictory in its content: the High Renaissance, the Reformation and humanism coexisted with a massive surge of irrationalism, the development of demonology, a phenomenon that received the name "witch hunt" in the literature.

The concept of "new time" was perceived by historians and established itself in scientific use, but its meaning remains conditional in many respects - not all peoples entered this period at the same time. One thing is certain: in this period of time, a new civilization is emerging, a new system of relations, a Eurocentric world, a “European miracle” and the expansion of European civilization to other regions of the world.

periodization

As a rule, in Soviet historiography, within the framework of formational theory, its beginning was associated with the English revolution of the middle of the 17th century, which began in 1640. Among other events that are accepted as the starting point of the New Age, events related to the Reformation (), the discovery of the New World by the Spaniards in 1492, the fall of Constantinople () or even the beginning of the Great French Revolution () are called.

It is even more difficult to determine the end time of this period. In Soviet historiography, the point of view was undividedly dominated, according to which the period of modern history ended in 1917, when the socialist revolution took place in Russia. According to the most common modern point of view, consideration of the events associated with the New Age should be completed with the First World War (-).

The discussion on the periodization of modern history continues today.

At the same time, two sub-stages are usually distinguished within the era of the New Age, the Napoleonic Wars serve as their border - from the Great French Revolution to the Congress of Vienna.

Changes

Political changes

The end of the Middle Ages was marked by the growing importance of centralized state administration. Striking examples of this growth are the completion of feudal civil strife - such as the War of the Scarlet and White Roses in England, the unification of the regions - Aragon and Castile in Spain.

cultural change

Great geographical discoveries

One of the most important changes was the expansion of the territory of the cultural ecumene known to Europeans. In a very short period (the end of the 15th century - the beginning of the 16th century), European navigators circled Africa, laid a sea route to India, discovered a new continent - America and circumnavigated the world. It is noteworthy that it was the discovery of America by Columbus (1492) that is considered to be the symbolic end of the Middle Ages.

These travels would have been impossible without the prerequisites, the main of which are: the invention of the compass and the creation of a vessel capable of covering vast distances on the high seas. Interestingly, the first of these inventions was made long before the advent of the New Age.

The ship on which the discoverers set off on long voyages was the caravel. These ships, small by modern standards (for example, the Santa Maria, the flagship of Columbus on his first voyage, had a displacement of 130 tons) literally changed the map of the world. The whole era of great geographical discoveries is firmly connected with caravels. Quite characteristic is the name that the caravel received in the Dutch language, - oceaanvaarder, literally - " ship for the ocean".

However, the prerequisites alone are not enough, so there must be a motive that forced you to go on long and dangerous journeys. This motive was the following fact. In the second half of the 15th century, the Turks, having conquered the weakened Byzantine Empire, blocked the caravan routes to the east, along which spices were delivered to Europe. Thus, trade that brought super-profits was interrupted. It was the desire to find an alternative access to the riches of the East that became the incentive for navigators of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. Therefore, the point of view that considers the date of the end of the Middle Ages to be 1453 - the capture of Constantinople by the Turks looks reasonable.

It is interesting to note that in this way it was the expansion of Muslim civilization that served as the catalyst that caused the accelerated development of European civilization.

The science

Not only the ideas of Europeans about the Earth have undergone significant changes, but the place of the Earth itself in the Universe has undergone a revision - even more radical. In 1543, the book of Nicolaus Copernicus “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres” came out from under the printing press, in which the rejection of the Ptolemaic geocentric system that had prevailed for almost one and a half thousand years was proclaimed. It is interesting that, starting his astronomical work, Copernicus was by no means going to create something fundamentally new. Like his medieval predecessors, he considered it his task to clarify the data from the Almagest, the main work of Ptolemy, without affecting the foundations. Although the discrepancies between the data from the Almagest and the results of observations were known even before him, only Copernicus had the courage to abandon the inertia of thinking and engage not in “correcting” the work of the ancient astronomer, but to propose something fundamentally new.

First page of Copernicus' On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres

Technique and production

The development of technology at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries had an even greater impact on the daily life of people. One of the most important innovations of the time proved to be printing. The invention and implementation of a seemingly simple technology had a revolutionary impact on the speed of replication and dissemination of information, as well as its availability (printed books were much cheaper than handwritten ones). Johannes Gutenberg is considered to be the inventor of printing. Around 1440 he built his printing press. As is often the case with inventions, certain elements of printing technology were known before Gutenberg. Thus, book scribes began to reproduce illustrations and curly capital letters with the help of stamps two hundred years before Gutenberg. However, then it was possible to develop a technology for making stamps (letters) not from wood, but from metal. And it was he who introduced the most important idea - typing from individual letters instead of making a board - a stamp for the entire page. Even in those areas of production where technical progress was not very noticeable (or did not exist at all) compared to the Middle Ages, cardinal changes took place, this time due to a new type of labor organization. With the onset of the New Age, the handicraft production of the Middle Ages was replaced by a manufactory type of production. At manufactories, labor remained manual, but unlike medieval workshops, a division of labor was introduced, due to which labor productivity increased significantly. At manufactories, craftsmen worked not for themselves, but for the owner of the manufactory.

The development of mining and metallurgy was of great importance. However, the most important improvement in the process of iron smelting - the replacement of the cheese-blast furnace with the so-called shtukofen (the ancestor of the modern blast furnace) occurred back in the heyday of the Middle Ages, approximately in the XIII century. By the beginning of the 15th century, such furnaces had been significantly improved. Water wheels were used to drive the bellows. By the 16th century, such wheels, sometimes reaching enormous sizes (up to ten meters in diameter), were used to lift ore from mines and for other operations. A kind of encyclopedia of mining and metallurgy was the book " De re metallica libri xii"(" The Book of Metals "). This twelve-volume treatise was published in 1550. Its author was Professor Georg Agricola (Bauer) (-).

The main events of the New Age

Peace of Westphalia

English revolution

American Revolutionary War

French revolution

Russian-Turkish war 1787-1792

Russo-Swedish war 1788-1790

Napoleonic Wars

Greek revolution

Decembrist revolt

Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829

July Revolution of 1830

First Opium War

Revolutions of 1848-1849

Crimean War

American Civil War

The American Civil War (the war of the North and the South; English American Civil War) of 1861-1865 was a war between the abolitionist states of the North and the 11 slave states of the South.

The fighting began with the shelling of Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861, and ended with the surrender of the remnants of the army of the southerners under the command of General C. Smith on May 26, 1865. During the war, about 2 thousand battles took place. More US citizens died in this war than in any other war in which the United States of America participated.

Mexican–American War

Revolution -1907 in Russia

World War I

• On July 28, Austria-Hungary, in response to the assassination of the Archduke by a Serbian terrorist, declared war on Serbia.
• On July 30, Russia began mobilizing the army in response, in response to which Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia demanding that the mobilization be stopped within 12 hours.
• On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia.
• On August 2, Germany occupied Luxembourg and presented an ultimatum to Belgium to allow troops to pass through its territory to France.
• On August 3, Germany declared war on France.
• On August 4, Germany invaded Belgium. On the same day, Great Britain, fulfilling allied obligations to Russia and France, declared war on Germany.

Notes

Links

• Kareev, A general course in the history of the 19th and 20th centuries before the start of the World War on the Runivers website
• Panchenko D.V. When did the New Age end? . Archived from the original on November 11, 2012. Retrieved November 9, 2012.
• Hobsbaum E. Age of Revolution. Europe 1789-1848 = The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789-1848 / Per. from English. L. D. Yakunina. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 1999. - 480 p. - 5000 copies. - ISBN 5-222-00614-X

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .

The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe a period in European history between the 14th and 16th centuries.
The Late Middle Ages was preceded by the Mature Middle Ages, and the subsequent period is called the Modern Age. Historians differ sharply in defining the upper limit of the Late Middle Ages. If in Russian historical science it is customary to define its end as the English Civil War, then in Western European science the end of the Middle Ages is usually associated with the beginning of the Church Reformation or the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries. The late Middle Ages is also called the Renaissance.
Around 1300, the period of European growth and prosperity ended with a series of disasters, such as the Great Famine of 1315-1317, which occurred due to unusually cold and rainy years that ruined the harvest. Famine and disease were followed by the Black Death, a plague that wiped out more than a quarter of the European population. The destruction of the social order led to mass unrest, it was at this time that the famous peasant wars in England and France, such as the Jacquerie, raged. The depopulation of the European population was completed by the devastation caused by the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Hundred Years' War. Despite the crisis, already in the XIV century. in Western Europe began a period of progress in the sciences and arts, prepared by the emergence of universities and the spread of scholarship. The revival of interest in ancient literature led to the beginning of the Italian Renaissance. Antiquities, including books, accumulated in Western Europe at the time of the Crusades, especially after the sack of Constantinople by the crusaders and the subsequent decline of culture in the Balkans, due to which Byzantine scholars began to migrate to the West, especially to Italy. The spread of knowledge was greatly facilitated by the invention in the 15th century. typography. Previously expensive and rare books, including the Bible, gradually became available to the public, and this, in turn, prepared the European Reformation.
The growth of the Ottoman Empire hostile to Christian Europe on the site of the former Byzantine Empire caused difficulties in trade with the East, which prompted the Europeans to search for new trade routes around Africa and to the west, across the Atlantic Ocean and around the world. The voyages of Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama marked the beginning of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, which strengthened the economic and political power of Western Europe.
The genesis of capitalism has its own chronology, acting on two levels: pan-European (that is, tending to become world-historical) and local-historical (more precisely, national). Although the dating of its beginning at these levels may differ significantly (delay at the last level), nonetheless, none of the national economic organisms remained aloof from one form or another of interaction with this process. In the same way, the scatter of individual regions is significant in terms of the forms and rhythms of the process that logically and to a large extent historically preceded the genesis of capitalism - the so-called primitive accumulation.
The main prerequisite for the emergence of capitalist forms of production was the development of productive forces, the improvement of tools. By the beginning of the XVI century. shifts have taken place in a number of branches of handicraft production. In industry, the water wheel was increasingly used. Significant progress was observed in the textile craft, in cloth making. They began to produce thin woolen taki, dyed in different colors. In the XIII century. the spinning wheel was invented, and in the XV century. self-spinning wheel, performing 2 operations - twisting and winding the thread. This made it possible to increase the productivity of spinners. There were also shifts in weaving - the vertical loom was replaced by a horizontal one. Great successes were achieved in mining and metallurgy. In the XV century. they began to make deep mines with drifts - branches diverging in different directions and adits - horizontal and inclined exits for mining ore in the mountains. They began to build houses. In the cold working of metals, turning, drilling, rolling, drawing and other machines were used. In Western European languages, the term "engineer" is found in the XIII-XIV centuries. (from Latin - ingenium - "innate abilities, intelligence, wit, ingenuity." Through French and German, the word "engineer" entered Russia in the 17th century. With the invention of printing, a new branch of production began to develop - printing. In the XIII-XIV centuries clocks with a spring and a pendulum were known.In the 15th century, pocket watches appeared.Charcoal was used as fuel, from the 15th century coal began to be used.Great successes were achieved in the 14th-15th centuries in shipbuilding and navigation.The size increased ships, technical equipment, which led to the expansion of world trade, shipping.But still, the 16th century, despite numerous technical discoveries and innovations, was not yet marked by a genuine technical and technological revolution.In addition to the spread of pumps for pumping water from mines, which allowed them to deepen, blowing bellows in metallurgy, which made it possible to proceed to the smelting of iron ore, and mechanical machines (drawing, nailing, hosiery), productive labor in industry remained largely manual.
The development of industry and the increase in demand for agricultural products contributed to the growth of agricultural production. But there was no drastic change in agricultural implements, they were the same - a plow, a harrow, a scythe, a sickle, but they were also improved - they became lighter, made of the best metal. In the second half of the XV century. a light plow appeared, where 1-2 horses were harnessed, and which was controlled by 1 person. The areas of cultivated lands have increased due to the melioration of arid and wetlands. Improved agricultural practices. Fertilization of the soil with manure, peat, ash, marl, etc. was practiced. Along with the three-field, multi-field and grass sowing appeared. The expansion of commodity economy in the city and in the countryside created the prerequisites for the replacement of small-scale individual production by large-scale capitalist production.
Finally, the nature of the genesis of the capitalist structure also depended on the geographical position of a given country in relation to the new direction of international trade routes - to the Atlantic. After the discovery of the New World and the sea route to India, the transformation of the Mediterranean Sea into the far periphery of the new, northwestern hub of international maritime communications played an important role in the backward movement - the withering and gradual disappearance of the sprouts of early capitalism in the economy of Italy and Southwest Germany.
Capitalist production requires money and labor. These prerequisites were created in the process of primitive accumulation of capital. Of course, the existence of a market for "free" labor power is a necessary condition for the emergence of capitalist forms of social production. However, the forms of forcible separation of the worker from the means of production that actually or legally belonged to him differ from one country to another to the same extent as the forms and rates of formation of the capitalist system itself. The intensity of the process of primitive accumulation in itself is not yet an indicator of the intensity
The emergence of capitalism gave birth to new classes - the bourgeoisie and wage workers, which were formed on the basis of the decomposition of the social structure of feudal society.
Along with the formation of new classes, new forms of ideology developed, reflecting their needs, in the form of religious movements. The 16th century was marked by a major crisis in the Roman Catholic Church, which manifested itself in the state of its doctrine, cult, institutions, its role in society, in the nature of education and the morals of the clergy. Diverse attempts to eliminate "corruption" through internal church transformations were not successful.
Under the influence of the innovative theological ideas of Martin Luther, which gave a powerful impetus to various opposition speeches against the Catholic Church, the Reformation movement began in Germany from the Latin "reformation" - transformation), which rejected the power of the papacy, Reformation processes, leading to a split in the Roman Church to create new creeds, appeared with varying degrees of intensity in almost all countries of the Catholic world, affected the position of the church as the largest landowner and an organic component of the feudal system, affected the role of Catholicism as an ideological force that had defended the medieval system for centuries.
The Reformation took on the character of broad religious and socio-political movements in Europe in the 16th century, putting forward demands for the reform of the Catholic Church and the transformation of the orders sanctioned by its teaching.
Throughout the 16th century The political map of Europe has changed significantly. At the turn of the XV and XVI centuries. the process of unification of the English and French lands was basically completed, a single Spanish state was formed, which in 1580 also included Portugal (until 1640). The concept of the Empire, called from the end of the XV century. The "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" was increasingly associated with purely German lands. In Eastern Europe, a new state appeared - the Commonwealth, uniting the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
At the same time, under the blows of the Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Hungary collapsed. Other Central European monarchies, united under the rule of the Austrian Habsburgs, lost their political independence. Most of the territories of South-Eastern Europe were under foreign domination.
Common to the development of most European states in the period under review was a sharp increase in centralization tendencies, which manifested itself in the acceleration of the processes of unification of state territories around a single center, in the formation of government bodies different from the Middle Ages, in a change in the role and functions of the supreme power.
Europe in the 16th century states of various types coexisted and were in complex interconnections - from monarchies going through different stages of development to feudal, and at the end of the century, early bourgeois republics. At the same time, the absolute monarchy becomes the predominant form of government. In Soviet historiography, the point of view was established, according to which the transition from estate-representative monarchies to absolutist-type monarchies is associated with the entry into the historical arena of new social forces in the person of the emerging bourgeoisie, creating a certain counterbalance to the feudal nobility; according to F. Engels, a situation arises when “state power temporarily acquires a certain independence in relation to both classes, as an apparent mediator between them).
The lower chronological limit of absolutism can conditionally be attributed to the end of the 15th-beginning of the 16th century. The idea of ​​the 16th and the first half of the 17th centuries is widespread. as a period of "early absolutism", although English absolutism (the existence of which, however, some schools and trends in foreign historiography deny) passed during the 16th century. the stage of maturity and entered a period of protracted crisis, which was resolved by the bourgeois revolution of the middle of the 17th century.
Absolutism continues the earlier annexation of the outlying territories, sharply restrains the centrifugal, separatist aspirations of the feudal nobility, limits urban liberties, destroys or changes the functions of the old local governments, forms a powerful central authority that puts all spheres of economic and social life under its control, secularizes the church and monastic landownership, subordinates the church organization to its influence.
The organs of class representation (the Estates General in France, the Cortes in Spain, etc.) are losing the significance that they had in the previous period, although in a number of cases they continue to exist, forming a bizarre symbiosis with the new bureaucratic apparatus of absolutism.

Reformation and Counter-Reformation

Reformation - movement in Western And Central Europe XVI- start 17th century aimed at reforming the Catholic Christianity in accordance with bible.

Since the 15th century The Catholic Church was going through a crisis of popular confidence: there was a rethinking of the theory of the “one-saving” role of the Catholic Church, the meaning of various church sacraments, and Holy Tradition. The luxury of the papal court, the morals prevailing there, the “acquisitiveness” of the church, which owned vast land plots and enormous wealth, cause great irritation. In these conditions Reformation begins in Germany then spread throughout Europe. Why in Germany? Here a movement is born for the revision of outdated religious dogmas and the reorganization of the church, the ideologist of which was Professor Wittenberg. University, theologian Martin Luther (1483-1546). October 31, 1517. he proclaimed his 95 abstracts against indulgences which challenged the pope's right to absolution. (indulgence - liberation from temporary punishment of sins). The unfolding controversy between Luther and the pope grew into a conflict after a German theologian in 1520 publicly burned papal bull about his excommunication from the church. At that time the formation of Lutheran doctrine, the main provisions of which can be formulated as follows: Holy Scripture is the only source of faith; only faith makes a person righteous; only two church sacraments should be preserved - baptism and communion; purgatory does not exist; it is necessary to abandon the veneration of the Mother of God and the saints, etc. Luther's teachings found the support of broad sections of German society. He was supported by many princes of Central and Northern Germany, who sought to get out of the power of Rome. When the head of the Holy Roman Empire, Charles V, recognized Lutheranism as a creed, but ordered an end to the “secularization” (alienation) of church lands, Luther’s supporter princes protested, and since then they have been called “Protestant”. The term then extended to all Reformationists in Europe. In the first half of the XVI century. there are many directions and currents in the Protestant ideology, the largest of which was Calvinism, named after a French jurist and theologian John Calvin (1509-1564 years .). At the core of Calvin's teachings was dogma about "predestination", the essence of which was that faith makes righteous only the person whom the Lord has chosen, salvation depends solely on this destiny. The Calvinist church was governed by democratic principles, it encouraged hoarding and trade, which contributed to the development of capitalist relations.

The success of Protestantism, its widespread spread in Europe, forced the papacy to undertake a number of measures to combat the "Protestant heresy". The combination of these measures is called counter-reformation". In 1542, a reorganization takes place inquisition, ruthlessly cracking down on "heretics". An "Index of Forbidden Books" is being compiled, church censorship is expanding. One of the most effective means in the religious struggle is Jesuit Order, founded in 1540 by Ignatius Layola (1491 - 1556). The main task Orders was defending and spreading Catholicism in Europe and around the world . As a result, the active measures taken by the Catholic Church allowed it to maintain its dominant position in Europe and slow down the onset of Protestantism. Religious changes in Europe, which were revolutionary in nature, affected all spheres of society - from agriculture to geopolitics. The clash of the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation leads to numerous religious wars, in which almost all European states are drawn to one degree or another.

Question 21. Ivan the Terrible, his domestic and foreign policy. (1533 - 1564).

After the second marriage of Vasily III with Princess Glinskaya Aug 25 1530. a son was born - Ivan. When Vasily III died, in 1533 Ivan was3 years . According to official annals, Elena Glinskaya was the guardian, according to unofficial - board of trustees (1533-1534), consisting of 7 people: Belsky, Shuisky ,specific princeYuri Glinsky , Then became the guardian Elena Glinskaya (1534-1538).

In 1538-1547.- the struggle for influence on Ivan IV between the boyars: Shuisky (until the beginning of the 40s), Belsky (until 1544), Glinsky (until 1547). In 1547, the Grand Duke takes the title of king, to strengthen the princely power. In the same year, a wedding takes place with Anastasia Zakharyina. July 1547 - a fire in Moscow, then they began to smash the Glinskys as the perpetrators. For the first time, the king saw the power of popular action. Among the rebels were nobles, this showed that they were not satisfied with their position. The uprising of 1547 showed the need for reforms. The nobles began to write petitions to the king, they indicated that in order to strengthen the state, it was necessary to bring the nobles closer to the throne. Target b - improving the position of the nobles, as the basis of royal power. Was createdElected Rada - reform government: Metropolitan Macarius, Kurbsky, Viskovaty, Adashev, Sylvester - author of "Domostroy".

February 27, 1549 was convenedZemsky Sobor - a meeting of "every rank of people." It was attended by all members of the Boyar Duma, the highest ranks of the church, headed by Metropolitan Macarius, court officials, governors, Moscow nobles, representatives from the settlement (ordinary townspeople). The council was an innovation and was convened to strengthen the power of the king and limit the rights and willfulness of the big boyars . In particular, he limited the rights of the boyar governors, removing some of the judicial and administrative functions from their jurisdiction and transferring these functions to tsarist officials, He has made a decision developnew Sudebnik . The convening of the 1st Zemsky Sobor meant the creation in Russia of a class-representative institution andtransformation of Russia into a class-representative monarchy.

In 1550 . wasaccepted Tnew Sudebnik , consisting of 101 articles.

Sudebnik consolidated a new system of government, consolidated the rights of the nobility, reduced the rights of the boyars, the obligation to participate in the courts of representatives of the local population, the most important criminal offenses were removed from the sphere of power of the governors, the nobles were declared outside the governor's court; the right to go to St. George's Day remained, but the size of the elderly increased, it was forbidden to turn the nobles into slaves, canceled the trading privileges of the boyars; the collection of trade duties (“tamgas”) was transferred to the hands of the tsarist administration. Tax benefits to monasteries were abolished, which also strengthened the state treasury. For the first time, government officials were punished for bribery.

In 1552 . was drawn up Palace notebook - a list of the Sovereign's court, included about 4000 people. From this list, clerks, governors, diplomats, governors and heads (military ranks) and other employees were appointed.

Was held unification of the monetary system . Moscow ruble became main monetary unit.

Reforms of Ivan IV :

1) reforms of central and local government,

2) socio-economic,

3) military,

4) church.

Central and local government reforms . 1555-1556 - the abolition of the governorship, local power passes to the elected. Local self-government is developing in the black-soil lands, where prosperous peasants and townspeople were elected. Self-government bodies played an important role in the period of unrest. In the 50s. the strengthening of the order system continues - orders were created.

Socio-economic reform . Early 50s - land census, according to which taxation reform was carried out. New tax unit -big plow .

Military reform . It was made up" Service regulations”, according to which a boyar or nobleman could begin service from the age of 15 and pass it on by inheritance. From the first 100 quarters of the land (170 hectares), the landowner himself (boyar or nobleman), equipped with “horses and weapons”, went to the service, from the next 100 quarters he had to bring on foot armed “serfs”. Thus, formed a special army - noble militia . It was made up " service people in the homeland ”.

But there were more service people according to the device”, i.e. according to voluntary recruitment . They were Streltsy army for the protection of residences. Sagittarius could engage in fishing and trade.

Church reform . At the initiative of Ivan IV in 1551 a church council was held, named Stoglavy ( It was meant 100 chapters of his decisions). The cathedral approved the reforms of Ivan IV, approved a single list (pantheon) of saints of the Russian Orthodox Church, streamlined the rites, and made decisions to strengthen the morals of the clergy. The Council forbade churchmen to engage in usury, but confirmed the right of the clergy and monasteries to own land. Although the purchase and receipt of land as a gift was placed under the control of the king. Rublev's icons, as well as the Byzantine style of painting, were chosen as models for icon painting. After church failure give up their lands , Ivan IV adopted a decree: the boyars could not buy and sell land without permission (this was done so that the boyars, having received a refusal, could sell the land to the treasury).

Oprichnina. Reasons and goals of introduction. Main stages. Results.

Oprichnina dates; 1565-1572

Ivan IV, fighting boyar conspiracies and treason, saw in them main reason for failure its policy, the main danger of centralized, autocratic power, integrity of the united Russian states.

Many boyars in Russia dreamed aboutelective imperial power on the model of the Polish royal , in which the boyars themselves could decide the policy for the sake of their class interests.

Strong autocratic power was objectively necessary for Russia . It acted as a kind of guarantor of the country's independence and its successful development. The vast majority of the people, almost all of its classes, were interested in it.

In January 1565 the tsar left Moscow And left for his hunting village Alexandrovskaya Sloboda . He sent to Moscow two letters. One metropolitan And Boyar Duma , other- townspeople of Moscow .

In the first letter Ivan IV reported that he was abdicating power because of the betrayal of the boyars and asked to be given special land. In the second letter he reported on the decision and added that he had no claims against the townspeople.

Knowing about the faith of the people in the king , Ivan IV expected to be asked to return to the throne . And so it happened .

But the king set two conditions .

Firstly, he will execute "traitors".

Secondly, he should establish oprichnina .

After that the country was divided into two parts : oprichnina(from the word "oprich" - except) and zemstvo.

To the oprichnina entered the most important areas seaside cities, cities with large settlements , areas with developed agriculture . On the lands of the oprichnina settled noble oprichniki, who were part of the oprichnina army . Maintain an oprichnina army should havepopulation zemstvos. At first, the army was a thousand people, then it grew to 6 thousand.

Oprichniki wore black clothes (a sign of readiness for self-sacrifice in the name of the king), dog heads and brooms were attached to their saddles, symbolizing devotion to the king, readiness to find and sweep all traitors out of the country. In an effort to destroy the separatism of the boyar nobility, Ivan did not stop at any cruelty. . The oprichnina terror began , executions and exile . Entire cities were often destroyed. The oprichnina undermined the political role of the boyar aristocracy, but caused considerable economic damage to the country. And this is in the conditions of the Livonian War, already devastating.

Acting with impunity, the guardsmen very soon turned into murderers and robbers who terrified the whole country. The oprichnina regiments lost their military combat effectiveness and in 1571 failed to protect Moscow from the Crimean Tatars. Posadskaya Moscow was burned .

A year later, the Crimean Khan repeated the campaign. But 50 km from Moscow, it was defeated by Russian troops under the command of Prince Mikhail Ivanovich Vorotynsky.

In 1572 . oprichnina was canceled . But the repression did not stop there.

Goals of the oprichnina . political - to break the forces opposing the strengthening of the power of the king.

Four periods of oprichnina :

1) 1565: mass eviction of boyar families from central Russia to the East, which led to the weakening of the Moscow Boyar Duma. In 1566 the tsar returned part of the boyars and princes.

2) 1566: the first speech of the opposition against oprichnina. Were against the oprichnina : boyars , church, land . The Zemsky Sobor reacted by writing a petition in which it was required to return the land to the Zemstvo nobles. After that, the king imprisoned 300 opposition people, but they were treated mildly: 5 were killed. All this showed social conflict originated in Russia. At the end of 1566 there is a strengthening and growth of oprichnina cities. The tsar's castle is being built in Moscow. Alternative oprichnina for Ivan IV : monastic vows, political emigration. Candidates for the throne instead of Ivan IV: eldest son, cousin Vladimir Staritsky (Ivan IV had to remove them).

3) 1567-1569.- transition to the Moscow terror. Staritsky begged for a list from the boyar Cherednin, according to which inappropriate boyars were executed. In March 1568, Metropolitan Kolychev announced the abolition of the oprichnina orders. Pogroms of monastic households begin. 1567 arrest and trial of Cherednin. 1569 - the murder of Staritsky.

4) 1570-1571 - apogee of the oprichnina . 1569 - Malyuta killed Kolychev. A letter about the betrayal of Novgorod was intercepted. 1570 - the campaign of the oprichnina troops against Novgorod, which lasted 4 weeks, killed 3,000 people. Pogrom of the Novgorod Posad. Then the guardsmen go to Pskov, but Ivan IV left Pskov. 1570 - Novgorod-Moscow business. 12 boyars were arrested, including Ivan Viskovaty, for collusion with Novgorod. At the end of 1570, the Vyazemskys, the father and son of the Basmanovs, were killed - people who started the oprichnina.

Objectively, the goals of the oprichnina were achieved: the top of the boyars and the church were beheaded, Novgorod was defeated, Staritsky was killed.

The consequences of oprichnina for society :

1. economic: robberies and eviction of the boyars influenced the emergence in 1570. the economic crisis, because of which a decree was adopted “on reserved years”: peasants were forbidden to leave the land for some time;

2. strengthening the personal power of the king in a despotic form;

3. change in public consciousness.

1584 - death of Ivan IV.

Foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible.

1. eastern (Kazan and Astrakhan khanates),

2. southern (Crimean Khanate),

3. western (Principality of Lithuania),

4. northwestern (development of trade).

In the West It was a fight to get out. Baltic Sea , in the east - the fight against the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, in the north - the conquest of the Volga trade route, the conquest and development of Siberia. On South the task was to protect the country from the raids of the Crimean Tatars.

The east direction was the main The chosen one is glad .

October 2, 1552 g. after careful preparation was taken by stormKazan .

In 1556 . taken by Mr.Astrakhan .

In 1557 Murza Ismail, the ruler of the Great Nogai Horde, swore allegiance to the Russian Tsar . Volga throughout became a Russian river .

After that, the closest advisers to the tsar, including the head of the Chosen Rada, A. Adashev, insisted on the conquest of the Crimean Khanate, from whose raids Russia suffered. But behind the Crimea stood the Ottoman Empire - an ally of the Crimean Khan. In addition, from the north, Crimea was covered by lifeless steppe expanses, which it was not yet possible to overcome. Therefore, Ivan IV switched my attention northwest in order to conquer access to the Baltic Sea .

Due to thisin the relationship of the king and the Chosen One appearedfirst crack.

On the 20th of January 1558 Russian troops crossed the Livonian border in the region of Pskov. The tsar himself announced the beginning of the Livonian War, its national character. It was necessary to return the lands that once belonged to Novgorod and Pskov. The Livonian knights suffered one defeat after another.

Summer 1558 . Russian troops were already standing on the shores of the Baltic Sea.

The fortresses of Narva, Derpt (Tartu) fell. Revel and Riga were on the verge of falling. The Livonian Order fell apart under the blows of Russian weapons, and in 1561 ceased to exist.

Russia's success alarmed neighboring states - Poland, Lithuania, Sweden and Denmark . A serious political mistake by Ivan the Terrible was revealed. Instead of seeking an honorable peace, he decided to continue the war. But it was necessary to fight with a whole group of states.

In January 1564 . the Russian army suffered first defeat under the city Polotsk. And in April, one of the closest advisers and commanders of the tsar, a member of the Chosen Rada, the hero of the assault on Kazan, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, ran over to the Lithuanians. Then followed defeat under Orsha . The war took on a protracted, exhausting character.

Nevertheless, 2nd Zemsky Sobor, convened in 1566, spoke in favor of continuing the war.

The offensive of the Russian troops resumed in the second half of the 70s, but in 1578 . they suffered several defeats from the Polish troops . In 1579 The Swedes invaded the Novgorod lands. From complete defeat Russia was saved by the heroic defense of Pskov which was led Prince Ivan Petrovich Shuisky .

After the 31st assault attack on Pskov, the Polish king Stefan Batory was forced to negotiate with Ivan IV.

January 5, 1582 signed with Poland 10 year truce . Poland received all Livonia and the city of Polotsk .

Signed a year later truce with Sweden , according to which Russialost almost the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland with the cities of Narva, Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye.

Livonian War (1558-1583), lastingalmost 25 years , ended for Russiadefeat .

Question 22. Great geographical discoveries and their significance. Formation of the colonial system and the world capitalist economy.

Geographic discovery- this is not only a visit by representatives of any civilized people to a previously unknown part of the Earth, but also the establishment of a direct connection between the newly discovered earthling centers of culture of the Old World

The Portuguese navigators were the first to start looking for new sea routes to Asia.

In 1488Bartolomeu Dias reached the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa. The knowledge gained by the Portuguese as a result of their travels gave navigators of other countries valuable information about the ebb and flow, the direction of winds and currents, and made it possible to create more accurate maps on which latitudes, lines of the tropics and the equator were plotted. These maps contained information about previously unknown countries.

In 1492 Spanish King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella adopted the project of the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus (1451-1506 ) to reach the shores of India, sailing to the west. The Columbus flotilla, which consisted of 3 ships (Santa Maria, Pinta and Nina), whose crews numbered 120 people. From the Canary Islands, Columbus headed west. On October 12, 1492, after a month-long voyage in the open ocean, the fleet approached a small island in the Bahamas, then named San Salvador. Although the newly discovered lands bear little resemblance to the fabulous rich islands of India and China, Columbus was convinced until the end of his days that he had discovered islands off the east coast of Asia. During the first trip, the islands of Cuba, Haiti and a number of smaller ones were discovered. Subsequently, Columbus made three more trips to America - in 1493 - 1496, 1498-1500, 1502-1504, during which part of the Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and others were discovered; part of the Atlantic coast of Central and South America was surveyed. Although the open lands were very fertile and favorable for life, the Spaniards did not find gold there. Doubts arose that the newly discovered lands were India.

The discoveries of Columbus forced to hurry Portuguese. In 1497, a flotilla sailed from Lisbon Vasco da Gama (1469-1524) for reconnaissance of routes around Africa . Rounding the Cape of Good Hope, he entered the Indian Ocean. Moving north along the coast, the Portuguese reached the Arab trading cities of Mozambique, Mombasa and Malindi. With the help of an Arab pilot, on May 20, 1498, Vasco da Gama's squadron entered the Indian port of Calicut. In August 1499, his ships returned to Portugal. The sea route to the country of fabulous riches was opened. From now on, the Portuguese began to annually equip up to 20 ships for trade with India. Thanks to superiority in weapons and technology, they managed to oust the Arabs from there. In the early 16th century, the Portuguese captured Malacca and the Moluccas. In 1499-1500. Spaniards and in 1500-1502. The Portuguese discovered the coast of Brazil.

Portuguese navigators mastered sea islands in the Indian Ocean, reached the shores of China, and were the first Europeans to set foot on the land of Japan. Among them was Fernand Pinto, the author of travel diaries, where he gave a detailed description of the newly discovered country. Prior to this, Europe had only fragmentary information about Japan from the Book of Marco Polo, the famous Venetian traveler who, however, never reached the Japanese islands. In 1550, their image with the modern name first appeared on the Portuguese navigation chart.

At the beginning of the 16th century traveled to the western hemisphere Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512) - famous navigator and geographer. Thanks to his letters, the idea that Columbus discovered not the coast of India, but a new mainland, gained popularity. In honor of Vespucci, this continent was named America. In 1515, the first globe with this name appeared, and then atlases and maps. Vespucci's hypothesis was finally confirmed as a result of world travel Magellan (1519-1522). The name of Columbus remained immortalized in the name of one of the Latin American countries - Colombia.

In the 16-17 centuries. Russian explorers explored the northern coast of the Ob, Yenisei and Lena and mapped the contours of the northern coast of Asia. In 1642, Yakutsk was founded, which became the base for expeditions to the Arctic Ocean. In 1648 Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnev (ca..1605-1673), together with Fedot Popov, left the Kolyma on 6 ships and bypassed the Chukotka peninsula, proving that the Asian continent is separated from America by a strait. The outlines of the northeastern coast of Asia were refined and mapped (1667, "Drawing of the Siberian Land"). But Dezhnev's report on the opening of the strait lay in the Yakut archive for 80 years and was published only in 1758. In the 18th century. the strait discovered by Dezhnev was named after the Danish navigator in the Russian service, Vitus Bering, who in 1728 rediscovered the strait. In 1898, in memory of Dezhnev, a cape in the northeastern tip of Asia was named after him.

In the 15-17 centuries, as a result of bold sea and land expeditions, a significant part of the Earth was discovered and explored. Paths were laid that connected distant countries and continents. Great geographical discoveriesmarked the beginning of the colonial systems , contributed to the formation of the world market and played an important role in the formation of the capitalist economic system in Europe. For the newly discovered and conquered countries, they brought mass extermination of the population, the planting of the most cruel forms of exploitation, the forcible introduction of Christianity. The rapid decline in the indigenous population of the Americas led to the importation of African slaves and widespread plantation slavery.

America's gold and silver poured into Europe, causing there a frenzied rise in the prices of all commodities, the so-called price revolution. This primarily benefited the owners of manufactures, capitalists and merchants, since prices rose faster than wages. The “price revolution” contributed to the rapid ruin of artisans and handicraftsmen; in the countryside, nobles and wealthy peasants who sold food on the market benefited the most from it. All this contributed to the accumulation of capital. As a result of the Great geographical discoveries, Europe's ties with Africa and Asia expanded, and relations with America were established. The center of world trade and economic life has moved from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean.

Thus, 14-15 centuries. a new period begins in the history of colonialism, associated with the emergence and development of capitalist production relations in Europe. A systematic exploration of new lands and peoples begins. Following the navigators, thousands of destitute colonists, officials of the feudal monarchies of Europe, set off on their journey, in a hurry to secure open lands for the crown of their monarch. All of them were driven by the irresistible power of money, the thirst for wealth, the prospect of getting rich quick.

The emerging bourgeoisie of Europe set about organizing colonial rule on a world scale. The first colonial empires arose - Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, which captured the richest countries of Asia, Africa and America. The open robbery of the occupied countries was accompanied by the oppression of the indigenous population. Together with the export of wealth from the conquered countries, slaves are also exported. Slave markets were opened, which existed until the 19th century. and became a shameful stain in the history of "civilized" European states

Question 23. "Time of Troubles": the weakening of the state principles in Russia. The role of the militia of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky in the liberation of Moscow and the expulsion of foreigners. Zemsky Sobor in 1613

Under Time of Troubles understand the period from the death of Ivan the Terrible (1584) to 1613, when Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov reigned on the Russian throne. This period was marked by a deep socio-economic crisis that brought the Russian state to the brink of extinction.

The main causes of the Time of Troubles are: protracted wars of the second half of the XVI century. (Livonian, Swedish, military campaigns against Kazan, etc.); oprichnina, mass executions; boyar civil strife; dynastic crisis (the death of Tsarevich Dmitry in 1591, the son of Ivan the Terrible, the termination of the Rurik dynasty after the death of Tsar Fedor Ivanovich in 1598); crop failure and famine 1601–1603

The main events of the Time of Troubles. There are three components of the confrontation in the society of the Time of Troubles, which are closely intertwined: dynastic(the struggle for the Moscow throne between various applicants); social(the internecine struggle of classes and the intervention of foreign governments in this struggle); national(fight against foreign invaders).

With the advent of each new impostor, each new king or pretender to the throne, the socio-political situation became more complicated, and by 1612 the Time of Troubles reached its climax. In a short period since 1605, several governments have changed in Moscow (False Dmitry I, Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky, the "Seven Boyars" headed by F.I. Mstislavsky), and the "Tushino camp" was formed, headed by False Dmitry II, who formed parallel management structures state. Society was shaken by peasant riots, and foreign conquerors ruled all over the country from Kaluga to Novgorod. It should be noted here that the split of the country began with the accession of Vasily Shuisky, who was not recognized by all of Russia, and in subsequent years the process of disintegration gained momentum. The situation was further complicated by the fact that part of the Russian territories was captured by the Commonwealth and Sweden and. thus, did not fall under the jurisdiction of any of the existing Russian governments. Of course, in this situation there could be no question of law and order in the state.

Russian society was tormented to the limit by the civil war, the majority of the population demanded stability and order. Under these conditions, the top leadership became the collective leader of society. Second militia led by Minin and Pozharsky , which began its formation in Nizhny Novgorod. Quickly enough, the leaders of the militia managed to unite a significant territory of the country, create an army, a government apparatus and begin to liberate Russia.

The people's war against foreign invaders ended in victory. Having cleared most of the country from them, the leaders of the Second Militia raised the question of transferring power to the hands of the monarch. At the Zemsky Sobor in 1613. king was proclaimed Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (1613–1645). The candidacy of the young Romanov, a representative of one of the most powerful families among the nobility, related to the last tsar, as well as to many princely and boyar families, made it possible to reconcile various warring factions.

Time of Troubles.

The appearance of False Dmitry I (Grigory Otrepiev), who was a monk of the Chudov Monastery, who fled to Poland and called himself the son of Ivan the Terrible Dmitry. In Poland, False Dmitry I recruited an army. Vasily Shuisky, who was on the commission investigating the murder of Dmitry, spoke about his salvation. False Dmitry I was a tool of the Moscow boyars and Polish-Catholic circles to overthrow Boris Godunov. In 1605 Godunov died, leaving the throne to his 16-year-old son. In early May 1605, the boyars killed Fyodor Godunov and his mother. False Dmitry 1 appeared in Moscow. The boyars expected to rule False Dmitry 1 (reign dates: June 1605 - May 1606), but this did not work out for them. Vasily Shuisky began to say that the king was not real. In 1606 Marina Mnishek, the bride of False Dmitry 1, arrived in Moscow from Poland. Together with her came the Poles, who began to behave in Moscow like hosts. The wedding was held according to the Catholic rite (discontent of the people and the church). 1606 - an uprising led by Prince Shuisky, False Dmitry I was killed.

From the summer of 1606 to 1610 began reign of Vasily Shuisky . He promised to rule on the advice of the Boyar Duma. He signed a decree according to which the escape of the peasants was a matter of state, the period of investigation was extended. 1606-1607 uprising of Ivan Bolotnikov , uniting peasants, Cossacks, petty feudal lords, Poles; they fought against the boyars, nobles, the top tenants, feudal lords and the enslavement of the peasants.

The appearance of False Dmitry 2; start of the intervention. False Dmitry 2 was a protege of Sigismund of Poland. Summer 1607 - the beginning of a campaign against Moscow. The army of False Dmitry was overgrown with dissatisfied authorities. In the autumn of 1608, the army ended up near Moscow, in the village of Tushino, where parallel governing bodies appeared: the Boyar Duma, orders, the second patriarch - Filaret. Marina Mnishek arrived in Tushino, False Dmitry 2 begins to conquer neighboring cities. In 1609 the Polish king invaded Russia (Smolensk was taken). Shuisky asks detachments from Sweden for land and money. In 1610 he was deposed and tonsured a monk. The boyars who rose to power (seven boyars - 1610) concluded an agreement with the Polish king on the invitation to the throne of his son Vladislav. For this d slander: the main government posts are occupied only by the boyars, it was forbidden to distribute land to the Poles, the Polish king Sigismund III married a Russian, the king had to convert to Orthodoxy, but he did not. In the fall of 1610, the Seven Boyars let Polish troops into Moscow, at the same time False Dmitry II was killed. In early 1610, the Swedes begin their occupation of the northwest. A movement against the interventionists is rising. Patriarch Germagen conducts anti-Polish sermons.

IN 1611 starts formationin Ryazan first militia led by Lyapunov, Cossack ataman Zarudsky, Prince Trubetskoy. In the summer of 1611 the uprising collapsed. in connection with the contradictions of the Cossacks and the nobles. Lyapunov program: restoration of boyar and noble land ownership, fugitive peasants returned, the Cossacks were not allowed to manage. The Cossacks did not like this, and they killed Lyapunov.

Autumn 1611- second militia in N. Novgorod, headed by Minin and Pozharsky . 1612 - Moscow is taken . The second militia had a government body - council of all land, which convened the Zemsky Sobor to elect the king.

Elected in 1613Mikhail Romanov.

Results of the Time of Troubles. The ruling circles were unable to lead the country out of the crisis, to resist attempts to dismember Russia from outside. There was a real threat of the loss of statehood by the Russian people, the loss of their independence. Under these conditions, the best representatives of the Russian and other peoples of the country, the broad masses of the people, became the main force that organized the fight against foreign intervention.

The struggle for power at the top of society dealt a serious blow to the economy of the state, its international position and territorial integrity.

1) Further weakening of the boyars, strengthening of the nobles

2) Severe economic and financial crisis; one of the ways to deal with the crisis was the enslavement of the peasants: 1637, 1641 - decrees on the extension of the lesson years from 5 to 15.

1617 - Stolbovsky peace with Sweden: the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland, the mouth of the Neva and a number of fortresses departed to it. Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea.

1618 - a truce with Poland: the western regions of Russia and Smolensk retreated to it

and opportunities to participate in the choice of the monarch.

With the signing of these two unequal treaties, the Time of Troubles and foreign intervention ended for Russia.

5) The Time of Troubles showed the need to catch up with the Western countries in military-technical support. Russia in the 17th century could not create a regular army.

It is necessary to strengthen the feudal militia - to attach peasants to it.

Question 24. Russia under the first Romanovs (Mikhail and Alexei Romanovs)

The second militia had a government body - the "Council of All the Earth", which convenes the Zemsky Sobor to elect the king. In 1613 Zemsky Sobor elected a young king Mikhail Romanov (he was the son of Patriarch Filaret). Filaret ruled Russia together with his son.

Tasks of Mikhail Romanov :

1. Strengthening of the Romanov dynasty. Zemsky Sobors met constantly until the 2nd half. 1620s

2. Strengthening the position of the nobles and the distribution of land to the nobles together with the peasants.

New measures to enslave the peasants. In 1637 and 1641 - new decrees, the terms of the investigation increased from 5 to 15 years

3. The functions of orders have been streamlined.

4. Reduced penalties for crimes

5. Reducing direct taxes.

6. Industrial development. Manufactory develops.

7. Foreign regiments created

8. Advance to Siberia - development of Eastern Siberia.

9. 1634 - Pole Vladislav renounced the Russian throne

10. Trade with: England, Holland, Persia, Turkey, France.

11. unsuccessful attempt to return Smolensk, which was in Poland

Since 1645 - tsarAlexey Mikhailovich Romanov (16 years old) - the son of Mikhail Fedorovich (dates of reign 1645-1676). He married Maria Miloslavskaya, then Naryshkina, from her son - Peter I.

1645- reunification of Ukraine and Russia (liberation wars of Bohdan Khmelnytsky.

In 1654 . Russian troops took Smolensk and 33 cities of Eastern Belarus.

In 1646. Was held household census, thanks to which the peasants were documented assigned to certain owners. In 1648, salt prices quadrupled. June 1st 1648 in Moscow unrest began, called "salt riot" which was suppressed by the archers. Similar riots took place in Voronezh, Novgorod, Kursk, Vladimir, Pskov, Tomsk - in more than thirty cities of Russia.

1649 G. adopted new set of laws Cathedral Code, which acted nearly 200 years before 1832

Cathedral Code of 1649legally formalized strengthening of the serf rights .

Was an indefinite search for runaway serfs was established . Peasants were forbidden to change their masters. The feudal lords received the right to dispose of the property and personality of the peasant.

Citizens, under pain of execution, were forbidden to move from settlement to settlement. The townspeople were obliged to bear duties in favor of the sovereign.

The landlords and boyars received the right to judge the peasants; led the peasant families;

The landowner was responsible for the performance of state duties by the peasants;

If the landowner went bankrupt, he paid with the property of the peasants

The right to transfer estates as fiefdoms was assigned to the nobles Þ rapprochement between nobles and boyars.

White settlements (people who worked for monasteries and nobles (boyars)), who did not pay state taxes, were liquidated Þ the rest of the population paid more.

Church land ownership was limited. A monastery order was created for control (then canceled). The Council Code began with the assertion of the significance of the role of the king: a crime against the person of the king is a state crime.

The tendency to replace the class-representative monarchy with an absolute one.

- harsh punishmentsfor crimes against the king and the church (quartering, burning at the stake, etc.), for making counterfeit money, for mutilating, for murder and other serious crimes

The tightening of feudal serf oppression naturally led to new uprisings.

Besides in 1654, instead of full-fledged silver money, copper money was introduced. Whereinthe tax was collected in silver , and salaries were paid out in copper . Money depreciated, prices rose, primarily for bread.

1658 Start protracted war with Poland.

January 30, 1667 was signed Andrusovo truce with Poland.

For Russia recognized Smolensk, Left-bank Ukraine with the city of Kyiv. Right-bank Ukraine and Belarus remained within Poland.

The wars waged by Russia in the 50s - 80s. XVII century, showed its weakness, inability to solve such important foreign policy problems as the elimination of the Baltic blockade, the creation of reliable southern borders, a breakthrough to the Black Sea, etc.

In July 1662 . broke out in Moscow so-called " Copper Riot". And again the archers crushed the uprising. But copper money had to be abolished.

DISCHARGE IN THE CHURCH:

wide mass discontent was at the root schism of the Russian Orthodox churches when in the ranks of the defenders of the old rites (Old Believers) there were hundreds of thousands of peasants, townspeople, dissatisfied with the strengthening of serfdom.

In the 40s. 17th century in Moscow at the court developed "Circle of zealots of the ancient piety ", which included prominent clergy, including the confessor of Tsar Nikon himself. "Zealots" came out for bringing order to church life, against drunkenness, debauchery and money-grubbing among the clergy, for streamlining church services, rituals, and interpretations of sacred texts (books). But when it comes to choosing samples, "zealots" disagreed. Alone ( archpriestHabakkuk and his supporters) believed that the sample should be taken Old Russian originals, other ( Patriarch Nikon, etc.) insisted on Greek samples. Nikon won. Avvakum was exiled first to Siberia and then to Solovki. church cathedral 1666 - 1667 cursed everyone opponents of Patriarch Nikon and his reforms. In accordance with the Council Code, they were put on trial and bonfires blazed across the country (as in their time in Western Europe). In 1682, Avvakum was also burned.

Thousands of supporters of the "old rites" - and they were most often peasants, ordinary townspeople - fled north, to Zavolochye, to the Urals, to Siberia. It came to uprisings, collective self-immolations.

One of the main areas Where have the peasants fled? , was Don. Over time, a special Don Cossacks. The Cossacks not only defended the southern borders of the Russian state, but also went on campaigns against the Crimean Khanate, Turkey, and Iran.

In 1668 - 1669. a detachment of Cossacks went on such a campaign under the leadership ofStepan Razin , which devastated the Caspian coast and even defeated the Iranian fleet shah. In the spring of 1670 Stepan Razin undertook a new campaign,but already against the Russian boyars and nobles . Therefore, not only the lower classes of the Cossacks (“goat Cossacks”) participated in the campaign, but also the peasants, the townspeople (urban) lower classes, barge haulers, working people, archers, etc.

Spring 1670 . Razin masteredTsaritsyn, then Afear , and then moved up the Volga, captured Saratov, Samara and besieged Simbirsk . Thus, Stepan Razin's campaign resulted in great peasant war . It was attended not only by Russians, but also by Ukrainians, Tatars, Chuvashs, Mordovians, and Maris. The uprising covered the territory from Ukraine to Zavolochye, from Astrakhan to Nizhny Novgorod . What did the rebels expect? ? Defeat the "blood drinkers", conquer land and freedom,put on the throne "good, just father-king ". It was not for nothing that there was a rumor among the rebels that the tsar's son Alexei Alekseevich, the future "good tsar" was going along with Razin (in fact, Alexei died in January 1670).

But by the fall of 1670, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich collected Noble militia (over 30 thousand people) and moved under Simbirsk. The twenty-thousandth army of Razin was defeated and Simbirsk was liberated from the Razin people. The seriously wounded Razin was taken to the Don, to the Kagalnitsky town, where he was captured by prosperous ("household") Cossacks and handed over to the tsar.

June 6, 1671 Stepan Razinwas executed onRed Square in Moscow.

25 .European Enlightenment and rationalism.

Enlightenment is an important phenomenon in the intellectual life of various European states of the 18th century. (France, Great Britain, Germany, Poland, Russia, etc.).

THE DREAM OF THE ENLIGHTENERS is to "rationalize" nature and especially society.

Rationalism(from lat. ratio- mind) - a method according to which the basis of knowledge and action of people is intelligence. Among the representatives of philosophical rationalism are Benedict Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz, Rene Descartes, Georg Hegel and etc.

Many enlighteners were supporters of "enlightened absolutism", suggesting that the executor of the necessary social transformations would be legitimate monarch , brought up in the spirit of enlightenment ideas, for it is incomparably easier to educate one person than the whole people. In the XVIII century. the boundless faith in science, in our mind, is further consolidated. Not only successes in knowledge, but also hopes for a favorable reorganization of both nature and society began to be associated with reason. For many thinkers of the 18th century, scientific progress began to act as a necessary condition for the successful advancement of society along the path to human freedom, to the happiness of people, to public well-being. At the same time, it was accepted that all our actions, all actions (both in production and in the reorganization of society) can only be guaranteed to be successful when they are permeated with the light of knowledge and will be based on the achievements of the sciences. Therefore, the main task of a civilized society was declared to be the general education of people.

Many thinkers of the 18th century confidently began to declare that the first and main duty of any "true friend of progress and humanity" is the "enlightenment of minds", enlightenment of people, familiarizing them with all the most important achievements of science and art. This orientation toward the enlightenment of the masses became so characteristic of the cultural life of European countries in the 18th century that the 18th century was later called the Age of Enlightenment, or the Age of Enlightenment.

England is the first to enter this era. The English Enlighteners (D. Locke, D. Toland, M. Tyndall, etc.) were characterized by a struggle with the traditional religious worldview, which objectively hindered the free development of the sciences of nature, man and society. The ideological form of freethinking in Europe since the first decades of the 18th century has been deism. Deism does not yet reject God as the creator of all animate and inanimate nature, but within the framework of deism it is cruelly postulated that this creation of the world has already happened, that after this act of creation God does not interfere in nature: now nature is not determined by anything external and now the causes and explanations of all events and processes in it should be sought only in itself, in its own laws. This was a significant step towards a science free from the fetters of traditional religious prejudices.

In France In line with this democratic enlightenment, the idea of ​​​​creating an “Encyclopedia, or an explanatory dictionary of sciences, arts and crafts”, an encyclopedia that would acquaint readers with the most important achievements of sciences, arts and crafts in a simple and intelligible form (and not in the form of scientific treatises) was born.

The ideological leader of this undertaking is D. Diderot, and his closest colleague is D. Alamber. According to the plan of D. Diderot, the “Encyclopedia” should have reflected not only the achievements of specific sciences, but also many new philosophical concepts regarding the nature of matter, consciousness, knowledge, etc.

In Germany The movement of the Enlightenment is associated with the activities of H. Wolf, I. Herder, G. Lessing and others. If we mean the popularization of sciences and the dissemination of knowledge, then H. Wolf's activity plays a special role here. His merits were later noted by both I. Kant and Hegel. Philosophy for H. Wolf is “world wisdom”, which implies a scientific explanation of the world and the construction of a system of knowledge about it. He proved the practical usefulness of scientific knowledge. He did not reject God as the creator of the world, and he associated the expediency that is characteristic of nature, for all its representatives, with the wisdom of God: when creating the world, God thought everything through and foresaw everything, and hence expediency follows. But asserting scope for the development of the natural sciences, H. Wolf remained a supporter of deism, which undoubtedly predetermined the subsequent deism of M.V. Lomonosov.

ORIENTATION TO PEDAGOGY has become one of the most important specific features of the philosophy of the Enlightenment. The problems of educating a new man, that is, a man who completely coincides with his nature, were the focus of attention of all enlighteners (especially Helvetius and Rousseau). The communicative, i.e., providing the transfer of thought from one individual to another, component of philosophy, came to the fore. It was not only what was said that mattered, but also how it was said. Philosophy appeared to be the most important tool for communication between people, and hence the condition for their unity.

Education, according to Rousseau, was not supposed to be spiritual or secular, but natural, focused on the natural inclinations of the child. There is no need to teach the child dead languages, scriptural interpretation, scholasticism, secular manners, he will need subjects useful for his future life: geography, botany, writing, arithmetic. Not science, but life is the main educator of the natural man.

The French Enlightenment called their age "the age of philosophers", "the age of reason". Physics for philosophers of the XVIII century. acted as an exemplary science, a model of science and scientific thinking as such. But not every physics could serve as a model of a scientific approach to reality.

LEGALITY OF NATURE is possible because there are causal connections in it. Every phenomenon has its cause. Cognition is the movement from a phenomenon to a cause. In turn, every cause needs its cause for its existence. The world is thus a chain of cause and effect relationships. According to Holbach, every thing has only one cause. The connection between causes and effects is unilinear. It is impossible to break the chain of causes and effects - the whole will collapse

26. THE GREAT FRENCH REVOLUTIONand its impact on the political and socio-cultural development of Europe.

A heavy legacy left the French with the long reign of the "Sun King" Louis XIV. His huge court and constant wars demanded a lot of money. Louis XV also waged wars, and almost all failed. And he also kept a huge lush yard. At the same time, collecting taxes in France was very difficult.. The medieval system was kept here under which many nobles had huge privileges. Yes, and trade and industry were entangled with various restrictions. But the peasants had a very hard time. The nobles continued to live as if life had stopped forever in the Middle Ages. Meanwhile, the sciences developed, enlightenment spread. And already few people could believe that the royal power was established by God himself. King Louis XVI was not like his predecessors. He was modest, he loved not the brilliant company of courtiers, but a quiet family circle. But his attempts at reform with the help of the best economists failed. Many influential people wanted change for the country, but for themselves they wanted everything to remain the same. In search of a way out the king Louis XVI assembled Estates General, i.e. gathering of all the estates of his kingdom. But after a month of work, the States refused to obey the decree on their dissolution, which was issued by the king, who was afraid of their strengthening. The threat of a dispersal of the assembly caused an uprising in Paris. July 14, 1789 the people stormed the fortress-prison Bastille, a symbol of royal power.This day is considered the date of the beginning of the revolution. After the storming of the Bastille was created the army of the revolution is the national guard. Following the uprising in Paris, unrest broke out in the countryside: peasants burned castles, destroyed IOUs and archives. The Constituent Assembly on the night of August 4 announced the "complete destruction of the feudal order" in France and the laws of the new society were enshrined in "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" (August 26, 1789), which became an introduction to the constitution of 1791. In 1793, the revolutionary government was headed by Maximilian Robespierre, who dreamed of the destruction of royal power and the transformation of the country into a republic. According to the laws issued by the Jacobin government, the lands of the nobles were transferred for their division, all feudal rights and privileges were completely destroyed. Then, in 1793, it was adopted Constitution, which proclaimed that all citizens of France have the right to choose their own government and to be elected themselves. In France itself, the revolution was accompanied by a fierce political struggle between various political groups and powerful peasant uprisings. There were numerous changes of a radical nature in the political, economic and spiritual life of the people. The agrarian issue was radically resolved: communal lands and emigre lands (opponents of the revolution) were transferred to the peasants for division. Completely, without any redemption, all feudal rights and privileges were destroyed. Several million private small peasant farms have sprung up in the country. The church was separated from the state, the king was executed, and the Constitution adopted shortly thereafter on June 24, 1793, proclaimed France a republic.

27. War for the independence of the North American colonies of England. US education.

The war of the North American colonies for independence was a natural result of those complex processes that took place both in America and in England. The incompatibility of the bourgeois development of North America and its colonial dependence manifested itself with particular force in the 1960s. XVIII century, when, after the accession to the English throne of George III, the provinces were attacked by absolutist methods of government and arbitrariness, which 120 years earlier caused an anti-feudal revolution in England itself.

By the middle of the XVIII century. the economy of the colonies strengthened, internal trade was established, and dependence on supplies from the mother country weakened. The colonies had their own fleet, inexhaustible supplies of timber and fertile land; planters produced products for export (tobacco, rice, indigo), attempts were made to breed cotton. The population has grown significantly.

In the 17th century, when the colonists most of all needed the guardianship of the metropolis, it was absorbed in solving its internal problems (the struggle between the king and parliament, the civil war, the restoration of the Stuarts, the Glorious Revolution). In the XVIII century. a fundamentally different situation emerged. The colonies were ripe for independence, and Great Britain, having achieved internal stability and defeated France in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), became the sovereign mistress of North America, annexing Canada and other French possessions.

Economic contradictions between the mother country and the colonies escalated after the publication of a number of parliamentary acts regulating the foreign trade of North America.

It was in the 60s. XVIII century in the colonies, a broad liberation movement began, which grew into a revolutionary war. It was natural for American patriots to turn to the slogans of the English bourgeois revolution (for example, "No taxes without representation!"). The American Revolution, unlike the English bourgeois revolution, was not religious, but secular character.

The causes of the War of Independence were:

1. The strengthening of the colonial oppression of England, expressed in the ban on the opening of manufactories, on the production and export of woolen products, on trade with other countries, in the prohibition of colonists to move to the west (1763).

2. Introduction of new customs duties on a number of goods (1764).

3. Quartering in America of 10 thousand soldiers of the regular army (1765).

4. The introduction of stamp duty - a tax on any product (1765).

War for independence:

a) goals, character, belligerents

Most of the inhabitants of the 13 rebellious colonies fought for the cause of revolution, but not all Americans supported the idea of ​​independence from England. Part of the population did not want separation from England. They were called loyalists due to their loyalty to the Crown and the British Parliament. Most of the landlords, royal officials, some merchants did not want to lose business ties with the metropolis, they were afraid of civil war and anarchy. The Negro slaves, who were promised freedom, also came out on the side of the British.

At the same time, the majority of planters - patriots – supported the idea of ​​​​independence, the economic reason for which was a huge debt to the English trading houses. This category included the majority of American merchants who advocated freedom of trade and entrepreneurship and provided financial assistance to the colonists. The leaders of the patriots were young freedom-loving politicians who made a career in the Continental Congress, the army. Among them was Benjamin Franklin(1706 - 1790) - scientist, writer, public and statesman, bearer of the new American national identity, proclaiming the idea of ​​the unity of the colonies.

The war for independence took place under the banner of enlightenment ideas. American educators include Thomas Jefferson(1743 - 1826) - Virginian planter and lawyer, author of the United States Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. Thus, within the colonies, a struggle unfolded between the allies of the British and the patriots who fought for independence, and therefore this war had the features of a civil one.

During the war, under pressure from the popular masses, individual colonies declared themselves "free, independent and independent states" (in English, "state" state - "state").

In 1776, the colonies were represented at the Continental Congress as separate and independent states-states. In June, a delegation from the state of Virginia, headed by T. Jefferson, proposed to Congress a resolution on secession of the colonies. A commission (Jefferson, Adams, Franklin, Sherman, Livingston) was created to draw up the declaration. In less than a month, she crafted the Declaration of Independence. ("Declaration of Separation") which was adopted by the Continental Congress July 4, 1776

28 . Petrine modernization, its features and significance for the development of Russia.

During the Northern War, Peter I realized the need to create a regular army (after the defeat near Narva (1700)) and Peter I creates regular army through recruiting kits.

Governing bodies by the 18th century

1. Zemsky Sobors .

From the mid-60s of the 17th century. Zemsky Sobors were convened less often. 1653 - the last Zemsky Sobor (on the annexation of Ukraine). In Russia, these cathedrals are purely deliberative bodies. There was no specific order in which members were elected.

2. Boyar Duma.

It solved minor issues, the main issues were decided by the Middle Duma (up to 10 people). The political and physical withering away of the Duma takes place (after 1704, mention of it ceased). Officials (clerks) - full members of the Duma Þ its bureaucratization.

3. Orders.

A sharp increase in the number of orders: territorial, military, patriarchal, palace, discharge, local. There was no clear distribution of the functions of orders. Often one official supervised the activities of several orders. That. there is a need to create new governing bodies.

Sweden was taken as the basis for the transformations, where the Emperor was the head of state (1721).

Instead of the Boyar Duma created Senate (1711. Functions of the Senate: court, and punishment of judges, state expenses, money for the war, gathering young nobles into officers, engaged in the supply of salt, trade with China and Persia, followed bills.

- instead of orders created Boards. Main colleges : foreign affairs, chambers (management of money), justice (court), revision (receipt-expenditure account), military, admiralty (fleet), commerce (trading actions), state office (public expenditures), Berg and manufactories (factories) . In the collegiums, there was a clear division into branches of management, uniformity in staffing and structure, and collegial decision-making.

Created Holy Synod, at the head of the synod was socialite, thus the church becomes part of the state apparatus, and it was subordinate to the state.

- City government - chief magistrate. Peter introduced public (political investigation) and covert control over government officials. Secret control - fiscalite T (people quietly wrote denunciations).

Reorganization local government : V seat of numerous counties a country was divided for 8 provinces . At the head of the province was appointed by the king governor. In his hands was the local executive and judicial power. The governor was given a provincial office. The provinces were dividedfor 50 provinces , which in turn shared on counties . At their head were governors with their offices.

The armies were stationed in the cities. The advantage was that the population fed the soldiers, there were no uprisings, the mobility of the army. Decree of succession: target decree- to ensure the continuity of policy (the king himself appoints a successor). This decree lasted until Tsar Paul. The result was a regular state with a strong bureaucracy and an army.

Socio-economic transformations of PeterI.

Economic sphere :

The economy worked for wartime tasks. 1700 - a monopoly on exports, as a result, a greater attraction of funds to the budget (destroyed small merchants). Forced industrialization for state-owned industry and military orders. The number of manufactories increased from 20 to 200.

Reasons for creating manufactories : in the conditions of the Northern War, the army needed ammunition and other equipment. Due to the creation of manufactories, industrial areas and cities begin to develop. Not only the old districts (Tula), but also new ones (Petersburg) developed. The Admiralty was both a shipyard and a fortress(this is important to know).

In 1720 - export monopoly abolished . Merchants fell under the control of the Commerce College. There is a development of private enterprises.

Was held The politics of mercantilism : based on the export of domestic goods (export). This was supposed to contribute to the enrichment of the state treasury and the development of Russian industry . Increased duties were introduced on those foreign goods that competed with Russian manufactured goods. . At the same time, the country's dependence on foreign merchants was weakened.

In 1724. - customs regulations. Manufactories used forced labor.

Social sphere:

Before Peter I, the division into estates was amorphous.

Tax reform : was created new tax system , which strengthened feudal dependence, the entire taxable population was rewritten, introduced pillow tax. This reform was carried out because of the need to find money for the army. The passport system was introduced.

Nobility: it was necessary to force the nobles to enter the service of the state. 1714 adopted a law on unity of inheritance(not to be confused with the law of succession to the throne): real estate from a nobleman passes to the eldest son (estates were not split), That. younger sons went to serve . 1714 - decree that untrained nobles could not marry.

Table of ranks (1722): Determined the system of ranks and the order of advancement in the military and civil service. The ranks were divided into 14 classes. From now on, career advancement depended not on “breed”, but from skills, skills, and most importantly from devotion to the emperor The assignment was made for military merits, thus, the principle of nobility was removed, non-noble people could receive noble titles.

The Petrine era is a time of achievements in the political and economic spheres, military victories, strengthening of national self-consciousness, the victory of the secular principle in culture, the time of Russia's inclusion in the common European family of peoples. On the other hand, Peter's reforms are the development of a totalitarian state, the time of the growth of the bureaucratic system of universal control. Note that the core of Russian life, the inner essence of Russian society has remained the same - feudal. Peter I took from the West and ruthlessly introduced in Russia only the external manifestations of European civilization. This is where the main paradox of Russian reformism lies. Trying with one hand to “pull up” Russia to the Western European level, with the other hand he laid the foundations for an even greater lag behind the country from the West in the future. Peter I set and solved tasks of a great political and national nature, but on a feudal basis and by serf-owning methods. The formation of absolutism ended with the appearance of a new title for the Russian monarch: from 1721 he began to be called emperor, and Russia turned into an empire.

29 . Industrial revolution in Europe and Russia: general and special.

Form start

End of form

industrial revolution, which began at the end of the 18th century in England and subsequently engulfed developed countries (in the 19th century), represented the replacement of manual production by machine production, the transition to the factory from manufactory. The leading social classes are the workers and the bourgeoisie. The basis of production is a factory and a plant equipped with machines.

The industrial revolution was gradual. In the first half of the 19th century, the industrial revolution after England covers the United States. Then came the Industrial Revolution in Europe. Moreover, in its eastern part, the industrial revolution did not end.

The beginning of the industrial revolution affected light industry. Then mechanization began to cover other manufacturing industries. This period was marked by technical inventions, including a lathe, a sewing machine, new transport (locomotive and steamboat), types of communication (radio, telegraph, telephone).

In the second half of the 19th century, the industrial revolution entered a new stage of development. During this period it was invented ICE (internal combustion) engine, phonograph(sound recording and playback device), open oil, chemical production. People started to actively use electricity.

Looms and mechanical spinning wheels appeared in the USA in 1789, the first textile factory began to operate. Were implemented steam engine and later in single engine.

Great importance in the development of the industrial revolution in America was given to construction of railways. Between 1830 and 1850 there was more than a fivefold increase in the railway network.

Unlike England, France, the USA, in which the necessary prerequisites for an industrial revolution were created by the bourgeois revolutions of the 17th-18th centuries. ., in Russia industrial revolution started before carrying out bourgeois reforms. In the 30-40s. 19th century under the dominance of feudal relations, an industrial revolution began in Russia. The transition from manual labor to machine labor swept the cotton industry, ensuring the growth of labor productivity and production volume, then - the sugar beet and stationery industries. Only in the Moscow province by 1856 there were 152 steam engines. Machine-building plants began to be intensively built. If in 1851 there were 19 machine-building plants in Russia, then in 1860 there were already 99 plants. In 1860, factories and factories provided 56.8% of the output of the entire manufacturing industry. By 1879, metalworking enterprises produced 86.3% of their products by machines. Pudding furnaces, which replaced the bloomery forges, produced about 90% of the metal. An important direction of the industrial revolution was the construction of railways; in the 60-70s. 20 thousand km of roads were built. The completion of the industrial revolution in Russia took place in the 1980s and 1990s. 19th century

In Russia, the process of the industrial revolution was not coordinated in the territorial and sectoral sectors. This was the reason for the rather long, half-century transition of the country from manual labor to automated production. Mechanization began in the cotton industry in the thirties, and ended in metallurgy in the eighties.

By the time of the abolition of serfdom, more than 60% of the products in the manufacturing industry were produced by civilian workers in factories and factories.

In the middle of the 19th century, about a hundred machine-building industries were founded, but manual labor continued to be used in metallurgy.

30. The era of "enlightened absolutism". Domestic and foreign policy of Catherine II.

Enlightened absolutism- the policy of achieving the "common good" in the state, pursued in the second half 18th century. close to European absolute monarchs who adopted the ideas of philosophy of the XVII century. in the period from 1740 to 1789, that is, from accession to the throne Prussian king Frederick II before French revolution..

Fundamentals of enlightened absolutism:

The founder of the theory of "enlightened absolutism" is consideredThomas Hobbes . Its essence lies in the idea of ​​a secular state, in the desire of absolutism to put the central power above all else.

Until the 18th century the concept of the state was reduced to the totality of the rights of state power. Holding firmly to the views worked out by tradition, enlightened absolutism introduced at the same time a new understanding of the state, which already imposes obligations on state power. The consequence of this view, which has developed under the influence of theories of contractual origin of the state, was the theoretical limitation of absolute power, which caused a number of reforms in European countries, where, along with the desire for the "state benefit", concerns about the general welfare were put forward. The aspirations of philosophers and politicians of that time agreed that reform must be carried out by the state and in the interests of the state. That's why characteristic feature of enlightened absolutism - the union of monarchs and philosophers who wished to subordinate the state to pure reason.

Attempts to transform in the spirit enlightened absolutism of CatherineII were: -convocation and activities of the Legislative Commission (1767-1768); -reform of the administrative-territorial division of the Russian Empire; -Adoption of the Letter of Complaint to the cities, which formalized the rights and privileges of the "third estate" - the townspeople. The urban estate was divided into six categories, received limited self-government rights, elected the mayor and members of the city Duma; - the adoption in 1775 of the Manifesto on the freedom of enterprise, according to which the permission of government bodies was not required to open an enterprise; -reforms of 1782-1786 in the field of school education.

In domestic politics Catherine had to solve the following 4 tasks:

1) improve finances and streamline the state economy in general; 2) resolve the issue of church property; 3) appease the rebellious peasant population; 4) streamline justice and reduce the cost of the trial.

The result of the Enlightenment in Russia was the strengthening of serfdom and the formation of a self-sufficient bureaucratic system, the traditions of which still make themselves felt.

Foreign policy- the most brilliant side of Catherine's state activity, which made the strongest impression on contemporaries and immediate offspring. Russia faced two major questions: Turkish and Polish (Rzeczpospolita).

After first Turkish war Russia acquires in 1774 important points at the mouths of the Dnieper, Don and in the Kerch Strait (Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale). in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region join.

Second Turkish War ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Thanks to all these acquisitions, Russia is becoming a firm foot on the Black Sea.

At the same time, the division of the Commonwealth gives Russia western Rus' . According to the first of them, in 1773 Russia received a part of Belarus (the provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev); according to the second partition of Poland (1793), Russia received the regions: Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; according to the third (1795-1797) - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Rus', the upper course of the Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third section, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia.