Early modern times. Early Modern Time - a general characteristic of the era

MAIN EDITORIAL BOARD:

Editorial team:

HER. Berger (executive secretary), M.V. Vinokurova, I.G. Konovalova, A.A. Mayzlish, P.Yu. Uvarov, A.D. Shcheglov

Reviewers:

Doctor of Historical Sciences Yu.E. Arnautova,

Doctor of Historical Sciences M.S. Meyer

The third volume of "World History" brought to the attention of the reader is devoted to the period that in recent decades, domestic historians have begun to call "early modern times", following the trend that has emerged in Western countries. In Soviet historiography, the era of the Middle Ages ended in the middle of the 17th century, the turning point of which was considered the English bourgeois revolution. The obvious convention of this date forced some historians to bring the era of the Middle Ages to the end of the 18th century. in particular, because the uprising in the Netherlands, which ended with the secession of the United Provinces from the Spanish possessions, was considered the first bourgeois revolution, and the Great French Revolution was the classic bourgeois revolution that ended the Old Regime. In any case, today the need for isolating a relatively independent period between the Middle Ages and the New Age is obvious, the chronology and name of which can be the subject of discussion.

In this edition, the beginning of the transition from the classical Middle Ages to the New Age is counted approximately from the middle of the 15th - early 16th centuries. and ends in 1700, the date of the conditional, but denoting the actual dividing line between the era of confessional wars and the age of Enlightenment in Europe. Thus, the period commonly referred to as "Early Modern" is divided into two parts in our edition.

A brief analysis of the very concept of the Early Modern Age and separate arguments in favor of and against its application to the period of the 16th-17th centuries. are listed below.

The origin of the idea of ​​the New Age is associated with the evolution of the three-term scheme (Ancient, Middle and New epochs), which crystallized in the works of historians of the Renaissance. Humanists compared originally ancient and new (modern to them - moderna) history. Flavio Biondo (1392-1463), not yet using the term medium aevum, considered the interval between them as the period of the decline of the Roman Empire, the spread of Christianity and, finally, the heyday of new states in Italy. Renaissance thinkers fully experienced the respect for antiquity characteristic of the Middle Ages, at the same time they were aware of their difference from ancient authors and strove to be pioneers, which indicates the emergence of a development model as the creation of a new one. But in the minds of educated people of the XV century. the idea of ​​progressive development inherent in the Christian worldview was pushed aside by the idea of ​​cyclism. "Le temps revient" - "times are returning" - was the French motto of the Medici house.

In essence, the idea of ​​the Early Modern Age is a product of the collective creativity of several generations of scientists, and the historians of the 17th century themselves, when the three-term scheme was finally formed, considered their time to be “New”. If the Middle Ages and Modern times (as well as Antiquity) are concepts conditioned by the development of European history and culture and having behind them a certain historical and cultural objective (existing independently of the mind of the historian) reality, then the Early Modern Age primarily reflects only the fact that the Middle Ages did not give up positions for a very long time. Many historians note that the conditional dates that complete the chronology of the Middle Ages: 1453, 1492, 1500, whether they have political, cultural or civilizational foundations, do not at all correspond to the moment when the Middle Ages as a phenomenon of human history go into the past. The end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries can claim this with good reason. Even the term "Long Middle Ages" was born, indicating the dominance of the old way of life in most of Europe until the French Revolution. At the same time, in the Romance historiography, “New History” is precisely the period from the middle / end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century to the end of the 18th century. (modernité), and the next - "The History of Modernity" (histoire contemporaine). The term "Early Modem" (Early Modem, Fruhe Neuzeit) for the first of these periods is used by Anglo-Saxon and German historians.

The periodization that we inherited bears many traces of chance and historicity, one might say, historically transient. Its vitality, at the same time, is explained by its certain colorlessness, inclusiveness, even optionality. Old and new are universal categories. The idea of ​​changing social formations turned out to be more artificial and less viable from this point of view (although its concepts and terms continue to be used and, therefore, are not without roots).

Why do we need the concept of early modern times, if it is so approximate? If we take conditional time points, for example, 1200 and 1900, the difference will be significant, they fit into different historical spaces that differ in all the main (socially and culturally) features. But there was no border between the epochs, the change of “paradigms” took place gradually, and the early New Age makes a rather wide band out of this border. The term is thus not ideal, but useful, reflecting the growth of historical scientific specialization. Most often, the early modern period ends with the end of the 18th century, but regardless of the nuances of periodization, the originality of the two previous centuries and this century itself (the beginning of industrialization, the spread of secular freethinking, enlightened absolutism and the redrawing of the map of Europe and the world between the “great powers”) encourage to talk about this century separately.

If we talk about phenomena that are typologically not typical for the Middle Ages and are more likely associated with the New Age, then this is primarily the market and finance. Of course, they existed both in Antiquity and later, but in medieval society, commodity-money relations were not dominant in the economy, where land was the main source of value; possession of it endowed with a place in society, in the hierarchy of power.

Europe in the Early Modern Period (Late Middle Ages)

"Europe in the Early Modern Times (Late Middle Ages)"

New story , or a new time in the history of mankind, is era of capitalism. It covers the period from the English bourgeois revolution of the XVII century. to the Great October Socialist Revolution of 1917. New history is divided into two periods: from the English bourgeois revolution in the middle of the 17th century. (1640) to the Paris Commune (1871) and from the Paris Commune to the Great October Socialist Revolution. New time was a stage of great changes in all spheres of life. It occupies a shorter period when compared with the Middle Ages or with the ancient world, but in history this period is of the utmost importance. Many historians call it "the time of the great breakthrough", and there are explanations for this. It was during this period that the foundations of the capitalist mode of production were laid, the level of productive forces increased significantly, the forms of organization of production changed, thanks to the introduction of technical innovations, labor productivity increased and the pace of economic development accelerated. This period was also a turning point in Europe's relations with other civilizations. If before that the West was a relatively closed region, then what happened in the XV-XVII centuries. The great geographical discoveries pushed the boundaries of the Western world, expanded the horizons of Europeans. The development of trade relations has deepened the process of formation of national markets, pan-European and world. In the XVI-XVII centuries. Europe became the birthplace of the first early bourgeois revolutions.

Transition to an industrial society:

During the New Age, qualitative changes took place in the life of the peoples of the Northern Hemisphere, and then of the whole world. They were due to the beginning of the transition from a traditional society to an industrial one, which is commonly called modernization. The new time, in short, has led to a change in the political system in many countries. The rapid development of trade, especially during the period of geographical discoveries, the emergence of banking, the emergence of manufactories began to increasingly contradict the traditional economy and political system. The emerging new class, the bourgeoisie, begins to play a significant role in the state. In many countries that have reached the limit of contradiction between the capitalist mode of production and the federal system, they have led to bourgeois revolutions. The Great English (1640-1660) and Great French Revolutions (1789-1794) initiated the process of establishing the bourgeoisie as the ruling class in the political organization of European society. In the 19th century bourgeois revolutions swept other European countries. In 1820-1821, 1848 revolutions took place in Italy. A whole series of revolutions of 1854-1856. shook Spain. In 1848 there were revolutionary uprisings in Germany. France played the role of the leader of social revolutions in Europe. After the Great Bourgeois Revolution of 1789-1794. she survived three more in 1830, 1848 and 1871. Along with the bourgeoisie in the social revolutions of the XIX century. the proletariat is active. In the form of major uprisings, he seeks to defend his rights. The uprising of the Lyon weavers in France (1830 and 1839), the uprising of the Silesian weavers in Germany (1839), the Chartist movement in England testify to the growing strength of the working class. By the middle of the XIX century. the political organization of the working class of Europe, the First International, is organized. Capitalism is finally victorious in Europe. The industrial revolution begins, and the obsolete manufactory is replaced by the factory. Most European countries in modern times are going through a difficult time of changing forms of power, a crisis of absolute monarchy. As a result of changes in the political system, parliamentary democracy is emerging in the most progressive countries. In the same period, the system of international relations began to take shape.

Geographic discoveries:

New time - the time of inventors and practitioners, the time of great geographical discoveries. In 1492, the Genoese Christopher Columbus discovered a new continent - America, in 1498 the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama established a sea route to India, in 1519 the Portuguese Magellan made the first trip around the world. In connection with these events, European trade, stretching across the oceans, became truly global. Spain and Portugal became colonial powers. The opening of a new sea route was a heavy blow to the traditional trade of the Arabs, Turks, Venetians. The new economic center of Europe, and in fact, of the whole world, moved to the shores of the North Sea - first to Holland, then to England and Northern France. In these countries, both industry and trade developed simultaneously. Later, the exploitation of the gold and silver mines, sugar and tobacco plantations of America, based on the widespread use of the labor of slaves captured in Africa, brought enormous wealth mainly to Holland and England. These countries were ahead of Spain and Portugal in economic development, where feudal relations continued to exist. The success of the travels contributed to change in many areas of European life. New goods began to appear on the European markets, which arrived from the East and the West - cotton products, porcelain, cocoa, and tobacco. The opened up possibilities of new sea routes led to an increase in the requirements for shipbuilding and navigation, for the training of masters in the production of maps, compasses and other tools. Maritime schools were founded in Portugal, Spain, England, Holland and France. Sea voyages made an important revolution in the sphere of ideas about the earth, the study of the movement of stars acquired practical value. At this time, the greatest inventions that expanded the possibility of observing nature, the telescope and microscope, found mass application. After geographical discoveries, the market for selling goods and obtaining raw materials for production expanded significantly, merchant capital grew rapidly, the bourgeoisie and merchants grew rich. During this period, the exchange of agricultural products for goods manufactured in the city developed, and the volume of goods produced increased. The development of commodity production and the increase in demand for handicraft products were accompanied by a stratification of artisans. Production based on the division of labor was called "manufactory". The very word "manufactory" means "manufacturing". But the manufacture is already an industrial enterprise with significant capital and hired workers who produce products for a wide market.

The first manufactories arose in Italy in the 14th century. At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI century. manufactories were created in Germany, England, the Netherlands, France. In the XVI-XVII centuries. cloth and silk, weapons and glass, optical and other manufactories were distributed in all European countries. In Russia, the first manufactories appeared in the 17th century. Manufactory production in Russia began to develop most rapidly at the beginning of the 18th century, and manufactories were widely developed in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries.

Creation of the first colonial empires:

Spanish colonial empire: Spain was the first to embark on the path of building an empire, declaring all the lands discovered by its navigators in the New World as its property. The very first Spanish colony was founded on Fr. Hispaniola (modern Haiti), then Cuba, Jamaica and other islands of the West Indies were captured. At the beginning of the XVI century. The Spaniards began to explore the mainland. For many centuries, highly developed civilizations existed here. inca(in Peru) Mayan And Aztecs(in what is now Mexico).

The first victim of the Spaniards was the power of the Aztecs, captured in 1519-1521. detachment of conquistadors (from the Spanish word conquest- conquest) under the command of Hernan Cortes. The Mayan city-states followed. In 1532-1534. it was the turn of the Inca state, defeated by the conquistadors led by F. Pissarro. On the ruins of the conquered states, the colonies of New Spain and Peru were formed.

Portuguese colonial empire:

The Portuguese used somewhat different methods to build their empire. Having established themselves first in the fortifications they built on the coast of India, they quickly began to spread their dominance throughout South Asia. The Portuguese followed the established trade routes in this part of the world, seeking to establish control over their key points. To begin with, they captured the ports to the west of India, through which the trade of the Arab states and Persia was carried out, and in 1511 they occupied Malacca, the largest port in Southeast Asia, located at the crossroads of the most important trade routes off the coast of Asia. The spice islands became the most valuable acquisition. In 1517 the Portuguese established trade relations with China, in 1542 with Japan. In 1557 they founded Macau, the first European colony in China. From the countries of the Far East, such valuable goods as tea, silk, porcelain were delivered to Europe.

The Portuguese were creating a colonial empire that was different from the Spanish. Spain sought to directly capture the vast undeveloped territories, where the extraction of precious metals was organized and plantations were created - large agricultural holdings in which tea, sugar cane, cotton and other crops were grown. Instead of large colonies, the Portuguese created a network of strongholds, trying to bring under their control the richest trade of the East Indies. Unlike the Spanish territorial empire, Portugal created the world's first trading empire of a global, that is, worldwide, scale. Common to the two powers was the establishment of a law according to which the right to trade with their colonies belonged only to their own subjects and was very strictly regulated by the royal power. In 1580, when Portugal was captured by Spain, a gigantic colonial empire was formed, which lasted until 1640.

Reformation and counter-reformation in Europe:

Reformation in the 16th century - the most important turning point in the history of the Western European Christian Church, a spiritual upheaval, as a result of which a number of dogmatic provisions were revised, new confessional movements and national church organizations arose. Reflecting the crisis of Catholicism, the Reformation at the same time made it possible to overcome it by adapting the Christian faith to the needs and ethical demands of contemporary society.

Anti-clerical sentiments were widespread in its most diverse layers at all stages of the Middle Ages: numerous "heresiarchs", political thinkers, humanist writers, representatives of the national clergy - supporters of the "cathedral movement" criticized the mores of the Roman curia, clergy and monasticism. Political claims against the Roman Catholic Church were expressed by secular rulers and the European nobility, who demanded the secularization of its property and lands. The burghers advocated the "cheapening" of the church, as well as the rejection of some of the provisions of its ethical teachings - from the condemnation of wealth and entrepreneurial activity.

By the beginning of the XVI century. these demands merged into a single stream and led to the realization of the need for a profound reform of church doctrine and organization. The most important prerequisites for the Reformation at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries were the general rise in education, the success of book printing, the spread of new principles of humanistic ethics and the Renaissance concept of man - the master of his own destiny. The intellectual needs that have matured in society have led to a rethinking of the theory of the “one-saving role” of the Catholic Church, as well as the significance of church sacraments (baptism, communion, chrismation, repentance, priesthood, marriage and unction) in individual salvation. The beginning of the European Reformation was laid in Germany.

Counter-Reformation and "Catholic Reform" in Europe:

The successes of Protestantism dealt a strong blow to the positions of the Catholic Church, which was losing its former power over the Christian world. This forced the papacy to take a number of measures aimed at combating the "Protestant heresy". The Church's policy to stop the spread of new teachings was called the "Counter-Reformation". It was actively supported by the sovereigns of the countries that remained Catholic - Spain, France, parts of the German and Italian states.

In these countries, the Inquisition became more active, condemning thousands of Protestants to a painful death at the stake as heretics. The Catholic Church encouraged denunciations of Protestants; the property of the convicted was handed over to scammers.

The Inquisition closely monitored the spread of "harmful" ideas in the universities, censorship of printed publications was introduced. In Catholic countries, the works of Protestant theologians were listed in the "index of forbidden books" and indulged in public burning. The importation of this literature or its underground publication was punishable by death.

One of the most effective means in the struggle for the minds of believers was the Jesuit order, founded in 1540. Its creator and first general was the Spanish nobleman and theologian Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556). He drew up a program of action and spiritual commandments for members of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), the main purpose of which was to strengthen the position of the Catholic Church around the world, which Loyola divided into "provinces" that covered not only Europe, but also Asia and America, where Jesuit missionaries were sent . Each region was headed by a “provincial”, under which there was a council - a collegium subordinate to the general of the order.

Unlike medieval monks, the Jesuits lived in the world and tried not to differ in appearance from secular faces. They participated in political and public life in order to influence them in the interests of the Catholic Church: they entered into the confidence of sovereigns, ministers, court favorites, encouraging them to pursue a policy approved by the papacy.

The Jesuits were engaged in "trapping souls" among all walks of life and did it very subtly: in order to attract believers to themselves, they opened schools, hospitals, orphanages and the elderly. At the same time, the Jesuit colleges and schools were distinguished by the highest level of education. In the XVI-XVII centuries. the Jesuits were considered the best teachers in Europe, many outstanding historians and political thinkers came from the environment of the order.

The ability to intrigue and subjugate people to one's will made the concept of "Jesuit" a symbol of cunning and political unscrupulousness. In their eyes, the end justifies any means. In the name of the cause of the church, the Jesuits even allowed murder, which was considered a mortal sin. They prepared a series of assassination attempts on Protestant sovereigns and politicians in France, the Netherlands, England and supported Catholic conspiracies in Protestant countries. Strict discipline reigned in the order, which did not allow ordinary members to talk about the moral side of their actions. If a Jesuit received an order from a superior, he had to obey unconditionally, as if he were an inanimate being, the charter of the society read.

Many leaders of the Catholic Church realized that the preaching of Protestantism is successful due to the fact that it makes the Bible - the main authority for Christians - more accessible to believers by translating it into popular languages. The Reformation brought with it church enlightenment: people were taught to read and write, the basics of faith, catechisms were compiled - a summary of the foundations of faith in the form of questions and answers - which were memorized. Pastors ensured that those who did not know the basics of the faith did not receive the sacrament. Thanks to the Reformation, many Christians learned better what they should have believed.

The Catholic Church, with its Latin service and Latin Bible beyond the comprehension of the majority, was losing in this respect. She had to make up for lost time. In the second half of the 16th century, Catholic theologians - supporters of the "Catholic reform" - also took up the translation of the Bible into national languages. The network of Catholic schools and universities expanded.

The most far-sighted representatives of the Catholic Church were ready to accept some of the criticism of the papacy and the clergy. They did not support the principle of papal theocracy, they proposed to abandon the assertion of the infallibility of the pope and insisted that he must obey the collective decisions of the councils. However, the conservative part of the Catholic clergy resisted all attempts at reform.

The Council of Trent, which sat intermittently from 1545 to 1563, was to resolve the disagreements. The conservatives won in fierce disputes about reforms: they insisted on the supremacy of the pope over the cathedral, achieved strict observance by the clergy of all church rituals and papal prescriptions, and strengthened the inquisition. Contradictions in the Catholic Church were overcome, but it was a triumph for its reactionary part

Main trends in socio-economic development:

A characteristic feature of the economic life and economy of the early modern period is the coexistence of new and traditional features. Material culture (tools, technologies, people's skills in agriculture and crafts) retained medieval routine. XVI-XVII centuries did not know truly revolutionary advances in technology or new sources of energy. The water wheels known since antiquity, as well as windmills and the muscular strength of people and animals, remained the dominant types of engines; the main source of energy is charcoal. Techniques of "high" agriculture and complex crop rotations came into practice during the classical Middle Ages and have changed little since then. Some shifts took place in traditional crafts - the invention of a wide loom and self-spinning wheel contributed to the progress of textile production. However, the medieval guild system hindered the introduction of technical innovations. This period was the last stage in the development of pre-industrial agrarian civilization in Europe, which ended with the onset of the industrial revolution of the 18th century. in England. industrial colonial counter-reformation imperialism

On the other hand, several areas of accelerated development clearly emerged in the European economy, where new technologies and forms of labor organization were more widely used. The progress of mining and metallurgy, in which production was carried out on a share basis with the investment of large capital, made it possible to increase the smelting of iron, cast iron, steel, which in turn led to the rise of weapons, the production of artillery and firearms, in which Europe XV-XVI centuries . knew no equal. The consequence of the spread of firearms was a revolution in military affairs, the transition from heavily armed knightly cavalry and light cavalry to infantry armed with arquebuses, the loss of the feudal militia of its former importance, changes in fortification, in all strategy and tactics of war.

Rapid progress was also observed in the so-called. “new industries” that did not have medieval guild traditions, these included printing - the most important invention of Johannes Gutenberg (1445), both technically and culturally, the production of paper, glass, soap, mirrors, cotton and silk fabrics.

In the XV-XVII centuries. a dense network of communications connected the cities and countries of Europe. The development of trade and means of communication led to the formation of internal and all-European markets, and the establishment of regular ties with Africa, Asia and America laid the foundations of the world market.

An important factor in the economic development of the early modern era was the emergence of the capitalist way of life. It was a natural result of the evolution of small-scale commodity production under market conditions. By the end of the XV century. most of the European peasantry was personally free and enjoyed economic independence, like urban artisans. However, the economy of a small producer is extremely unstable: constantly working for the market, it either prospers and grows larger, or goes bankrupt. This trend was observed in the XVI-XVII centuries. both in the city and in the countryside, where hired labor for wages spread.

The slow natural evolution of the feudal economy to capitalism was accelerated by the process of "primitive accumulation of capital" - a number of historical factors that contributed, on the one hand, to the rapid expropriation of small producers (for example, the forcible enclosure of peasant lands in England, the "price revolution", the system of public debt, which increased the tax burden). On the other hand, they facilitated the formation of large capital in the hands of the merchants and entrepreneurs: such factors include non-equivalent trade with the colonies of the New World, the protectionist policy of states that contributed to the enrichment of the merchants, the same “price revolution”, the benefits of which were able to use the major food suppliers and raw materials to European markets.

Capitalism has taken hold in the urban economy, despite the moderating influence of the shop floor. Property and social stratification affected the guild artisans - the basis of the medieval burghers, the struggle within the guilds, their "closure", the subordination of the "senior" guilds to the "junior" ones by the end of the 15th century. put some of the masters in unequal conditions. The rise in prices in the 16th century, which especially hit the urban population, who bought both food and raw materials, accelerated this process. A free labor market was formed in the city at the expense of half-ruined craftsmen, "eternal apprentices", the plebs and peasants who came to work. This created opportunities for the organization of large-scale production - manufactory.

Imperialism: At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, capitalism entered a new and final stage of its development - imperialism, or monopoly capitalism. At this time, powerful associations of the largest industrialists and bankers were formed - monopolies. They seized control of the entire economic life of the capitalist countries, subjugated the bourgeois parliaments and the state apparatus. In their hands were schools, universities, scientific institutions, the press, theater, cinema. The imperialists carry the exploitation of the peoples of their own countries to the extreme, enslave and rob the peoples of other countries, especially the backward ones. At the end of the 19th century, when the capture of the colonies had already been completed, predatory wars began between the imperialist countries for the redistribution of colonies, for the redivision of the world. World War I 1914-1918 was an imperialist war for the redivision of the world.

At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. Russia, where the contradictions of imperialism have become particularly acute, has become the country of the most advanced labor movement in the world. A truly revolutionary Marxist party arose in Russia, the Bolshevik party headed by Lenin. When in 1914 the capitalists, in pursuit of profits, unleashed a world war, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, consistently fought for peace, for the proletarian revolution. In 1917, the proletarian revolution won in Russia under the leadership of the Leninist Communist Party.

Bourgeois revolutions were limited only to the replacement of feudalism by capitalism. The Great October Socialist Revolution abolished private ownership of the means of production and all exploitation of man by man, tore out the very roots of exploitation. Since 1917, the period of the collapse of capitalism and the victory of socialism began - first in Russia, then in other countries. This revolution stirred up the peoples of the colonial and dependent countries and gave a powerful impetus to their national liberation movement. The dictatorship of the proletariat was established in Russia - a new type of democracy, democracy for the working people.

October 1917 opened a new period in world history - the latest history.

The period from the end of the fifteenth century to the beginning of the eighteenth century. in historiography one can find a different name - late Middle Ages, early modern times; the era of proto-industrial civilization, if we are talking about the early stage of the genesis of industrial society; time of the Renaissance in culture and the Reformation. At this time, new behavioral stereotypes, ethical norms, worldview ideas, stereotypes appear, which differ sharply from the traditional society that we meet in the Middle Ages. Early modern time covers about 250 years. This is the period from the end of the 15th to the middle of the 18th century.

The period from the end of the 15th century to the middle of the 18th century is the time of the crisis of traditional society, the birth and development of capitalism, and the disintegration of feudal foundations. Capitalist production appeared in the large cities of Italy and the Netherlands at the end of the 14th-15th centuries, but K. Marx attributed the emergence of the capitalist way of life only to the 16th century. Since not all European countries were equally affected by the emergence of capitalist production. In some of them, capitalist forms did not have noticeable success, and in connection with this, the growth of commodity-money relations and trade was used by the nobility to enrich themselves, in these countries there is a return to gross forms of feudal exploitation of the peasantry - serfdom and corvee (for example, the Czech Hussite wars).

The 16th century was the century of the formation of a new thinking in Europe, a new Man, the historians of the liberal school spoke out. A similar point of view belongs to our domestic historian, Timofey Nikolaevich Granovsky. Timofei Nikolaevich Granovsky gave a brilliant definition of the era: “The Middle Ages had their own geography, their own state, their own church and science. In the 15th century, Columbus appears and pushes the boundaries that existed in the Middle Ages. At the beginning of the 16th century, Machiavelli appears, a sharper rejection of medieval theories could not be imagined... The unity of the church was broken by the Reformation... Medieval science, scholasticism, once so brilliant and bold... is broken by the efforts of the humanists.

Consider the development of the progressive states of Western Europe?

1.In the economic sphere there was a progressive decomposition of feudal forms of economy, there was a process of PNK, the emergence of a new economic order.

2.In the social sphere – the class stratification of traditional society was eroded, new professional-class groups, classes of the bourgeoisie and hired workers arose. Gradually emerging bourgeois.

3. Arise new forms of ideology: such were humanism, reformation creeds (Lutheranism, Zwinglianism, Calvinism) and radical sectarian teachings with their leveling ideas. Renewal of Catholic Christianity.

4. Significant changes have also taken place in the political structure of society. Early modern times - the time of new forms of the state - were replaced by class-representative absolute monarchies.

5. The 16th century is also famous for the first acts bourgeois revolutions. This is the Reformation and the Peasant War in Germany in 1525, and the Dutch bourgeois revolution, the result of which was the formation of the first bourgeois republic in Europe - the Republic of the United Provinces. All these events are of world-historical significance.

new time

New time(or new story) - a period in the history of mankind, located between the Middle Ages and modern times.

The concept of "new history" appeared in European historical and philosophical thought in the Renaissance as an element of the three-term division of history proposed by humanists into ancient, middle and new. From the point of view of humanists, the flourishing of secular science and culture during the Renaissance, that is, not a socio-economic, but a spiritual and cultural factor, was the criterion for determining the "new time", its "novelty" in comparison with the previous era. However, this period is rather contradictory in its content: the High Renaissance, the Reformation and humanism coexisted with a massive surge of irrationalism, the development of demonology, a phenomenon that received the name "witch hunt" in the literature.

The concept of "new time" was perceived by historians and established itself in scientific use, but its meaning remains conditional in many respects - not all peoples entered this period at the same time. One thing is certain: in this period of time, a new civilization is emerging, a new system of relations, a Eurocentric world, a “European miracle” and the expansion of European civilization to other regions of the world.

periodization

As a rule, in Soviet historiography, within the framework of formational theory, its beginning was associated with the English revolution of the middle of the 17th century, which began in 1640. Among other events that are accepted as the starting point of the New Age, events related to the Reformation (), the discovery of the New World by the Spaniards in 1492, the fall of Constantinople () or even the beginning of the Great French Revolution () are called.

It is even more difficult to determine the end time of this period. In Soviet historiography, the point of view was undividedly dominated, according to which the period of modern history ended in 1917, when the socialist revolution took place in Russia. According to the most common modern point of view, consideration of the events associated with the New Age should be completed with the First World War (-).

The discussion on the periodization of modern history continues today.

At the same time, two sub-stages are usually distinguished within the era of the New Age, the Napoleonic Wars serve as their border - from the Great French Revolution to the Congress of Vienna.

Changes

Political changes

The end of the Middle Ages was marked by the growing importance of centralized state administration. Striking examples of this growth are the completion of feudal civil strife - such as the War of the Scarlet and White Roses in England, the unification of the regions - Aragon and Castile in Spain.

cultural change

Great geographical discoveries

One of the most important changes was the expansion of the territory of the cultural ecumene known to Europeans. In a very short period (the end of the 15th century - the beginning of the 16th century), European navigators circled Africa, laid a sea route to India, discovered a new continent - America and circumnavigated the world. It is noteworthy that it was the discovery of America by Columbus (1492) that is considered to be the symbolic end of the Middle Ages.

These travels would have been impossible without the prerequisites, the main of which are: the invention of the compass and the creation of a vessel capable of covering vast distances on the high seas. Interestingly, the first of these inventions was made long before the advent of the New Age.

The ship on which the discoverers set off on long voyages was the caravel. These ships, small by modern standards (for example, the Santa Maria, the flagship of Columbus on his first voyage, had a displacement of 130 tons) literally changed the map of the world. The whole era of great geographical discoveries is firmly connected with caravels. Quite characteristic is the name that the caravel received in the Dutch language, - oceaanvaarder, literally - " ship for the ocean».

However, the prerequisites alone are not enough, so there must be a motive that forced you to go on long and dangerous journeys. This motive was the following fact. In the second half of the 15th century, the Turks, having conquered the weakened Byzantine Empire, blocked the caravan routes to the east, along which spices were delivered to Europe. Thus, trade that brought super-profits was interrupted. It was the desire to find an alternative access to the riches of the East that became the incentive for navigators of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. Therefore, the point of view that considers the date of the end of the Middle Ages to be 1453 - the capture of Constantinople by the Turks looks reasonable.

It is interesting to note that in this way it was the expansion of Muslim civilization that served as the catalyst that caused the accelerated development of European civilization.

The science

Not only the ideas of Europeans about the Earth have undergone significant changes, but the place of the Earth itself in the Universe has undergone a revision - even more radical. In 1543, the book of Nicolaus Copernicus “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres” came out from under the printing press, in which the rejection of the Ptolemaic geocentric system that had prevailed for almost one and a half thousand years was proclaimed. It is interesting that, starting his astronomical work, Copernicus was by no means going to create something fundamentally new. Like his medieval predecessors, he considered it his task to clarify the data from the Almagest, the main work of Ptolemy, without affecting the foundations. Although the discrepancies between the data from the Almagest and the results of observations were known even before him, only Copernicus had the courage to abandon the inertia of thinking and engage not in “correcting” the work of the ancient astronomer, but to propose something fundamentally new.

First page of Copernicus' On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres

Technique and production

The development of technology at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries had an even greater impact on the daily life of people. One of the most important innovations of the time proved to be printing. The invention and implementation of a seemingly simple technology had a revolutionary impact on the speed of replication and dissemination of information, as well as its availability (printed books were much cheaper than handwritten ones). Johannes Gutenberg is considered to be the inventor of printing. Around 1440 he built his printing press. As is often the case with inventions, certain elements of printing technology were known before Gutenberg. Thus, book scribes began to reproduce illustrations and curly capital letters with the help of stamps two hundred years before Gutenberg. However, then it was possible to develop a technology for making stamps (letters) not from wood, but from metal. And it was he who introduced the most important idea - typing from individual letters instead of making a board - a stamp for the entire page. Even in those areas of production where technical progress was not very noticeable (or did not exist at all) compared to the Middle Ages, cardinal changes took place, this time due to a new type of labor organization. With the onset of the New Age, the handicraft production of the Middle Ages was replaced by a manufactory type of production. At manufactories, labor remained manual, but unlike medieval workshops, a division of labor was introduced, due to which labor productivity increased significantly. At manufactories, craftsmen worked not for themselves, but for the owner of the manufactory.

The development of mining and metallurgy was of great importance. However, the most important improvement in the process of iron smelting - the replacement of the cheese-blast furnace with the so-called shtukofen (the ancestor of the modern blast furnace) occurred back in the heyday of the Middle Ages, approximately in the XIII century. By the beginning of the 15th century, such furnaces had been significantly improved. Water wheels were used to drive the bellows. By the 16th century, such wheels, sometimes reaching enormous sizes (up to ten meters in diameter), were used to lift ore from mines and for other operations. A kind of encyclopedia of mining and metallurgy was the book " De re metallica libri xii"(" The Book of Metals "). This twelve-volume treatise was published in 1550. Its author was Professor Georg Agricola (Bauer) (-).

The main events of the New Age

Peace of Westphalia

English revolution

American Revolutionary War

French revolution

Russian-Turkish war 1787-1792

Russo-Swedish war 1788-1790

Napoleonic Wars

Greek revolution

Decembrist revolt

Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829

July Revolution of 1830

First Opium War

Revolutions of 1848-1849

Crimean War

American Civil War

The American Civil War (the war of the North and the South; English American Civil War) of 1861-1865 was a war between the abolitionist states of the North and the 11 slave states of the South.

The fighting began with the shelling of Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861, and ended with the surrender of the remnants of the army of the southerners under the command of General C. Smith on May 26, 1865. During the war, about 2 thousand battles took place. More US citizens died in this war than in any other war in which the United States of America participated.

Mexican–American War

Revolution -1907 in Russia

World War I

• On July 28, Austria-Hungary, in response to the assassination of the Archduke by a Serbian terrorist, declared war on Serbia.
• On July 30, Russia began mobilizing the army in response, in response to which Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia demanding that the mobilization be stopped within 12 hours.
• On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia.
• On August 2, Germany occupied Luxembourg and presented an ultimatum to Belgium to allow troops to pass through its territory to France.
• On August 3, Germany declared war on France.
• On August 4, Germany invaded Belgium. On the same day, Great Britain, fulfilling allied obligations to Russia and France, declared war on Germany.

Notes

Links

• Kareev, A general course in the history of the 19th and 20th centuries before the start of the World War on the Runivers website
• Panchenko D.V. When did the New Age end? . Archived from the original on November 11, 2012. Retrieved November 9, 2012.
• Hobsbaum E. Age of Revolution. Europe 1789-1848 = The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789-1848 / Per. from English. L. D. Yakunina. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 1999. - 480 p. - 5000 copies. - ISBN 5-222-00614-X

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .

Section III . EARLY MODERN TIME

Western Europe in XVI century

In the 16th century, major changes took place in Europe. Chief among them is the formation of large and powerful monarchies that claim to be a consolidating force and promote the formation of nations; the fall of the political and spiritual authority of the Catholic Church. The peculiarity of the era was that the social forces that fought against feudalism and the church that illuminated it had not yet broken with the religious worldview. Therefore, the general slogan of the mass anti-feudal movements was a call for church reform, for the revival of the true, apostolic church.

1. Niccolo Machiavelli

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) a philosopher, diplomat and politician, entered the history of political and legal thought as the author of The Sovereign, which brought him world fame. The writings of Machiavelli laid the foundation for the political and legal ideology of modern times. Analyzing the work of N. Machiavelli, it is fundamentally important to understand that in the human qualities and behavior of the sovereign, he reveals the methods, patterns of political activity personified in the ruler of the state itself. In this setting to reveal the nature of the state, and not in drawing up a portrait of the ruler needed by the country and giving him recommendations, lies the deep conceptual meaning of "The Sovereign".

His political doctrine free from theology, it is based on the experience of contemporary city-states, the rulers of the ancient world, on the knowledge of the interests and passions of a person, participants in political life. Machiavelli believed that the study of the past, taking into account the psychology of people makes it possible to foresee the future and determine the means and methods of action.

In politics, one should always count on the worst, and not on the good and ideal. State- there is a certain relationship between the government and subjects, based on the fear or love of the latter. At the same time, fear should not develop into hatred. The main thing is the real ability of the government to command subjects. The purpose of the state and the basis of its strength is the security of the individual and the inviolability of property; “A person who is deprived of any benefit never forgets it.” "The most dangerous thing for a ruler is to encroach on the property of his subjects."

The benefit of freedom (the inviolability of private property and the security of the individual) - the goal and basis of the strength of the state, is best ensured in republic. Reproducing, following Polybius, ideas about the emergence and cycle of forms of government, he, like ancient thinkers, prefers a mixed form (monarchy, aristocracy and democracy). The peculiarity of his teaching is that he considered a mixed republic the result of struggling social groups.

Machiavelli expresses his own, different from the generally accepted among politicians, people's opinion: the masses of the people are more constant, more honest, wiser and more reasonable than the sovereign. The people often make mistakes in general matters, but very rarely in particular ones. Even a rebellious people is less terrible than a tyrant: the people can be persuaded with a word, a tyrant can be "get rid of only with iron." The cruelty of the people is directed against those who encroach on the common good, the cruelty of the sovereign - who "can encroach on his own personal good." He distinguishes from the people know. There is no society where there would be no confrontation between the nobility and the people. The ambition of the former is the source of unrest in the state, their claims are boundless. But to know is inevitable and necessary for the state. It is from its midst that statesmen, officials, and military leaders come forward. A free state must be based on the compromises of the people and the nobility; the essence of the "mixed republic" lies in the fact that the state bodies include aristocratic and democratic institutions that play the role of a deterrent.

Concerning nobility(“those who idly live on the income from their huge estates, not caring in the least about cultivating the land or earning a living by the necessary work”), then Machiavelli spoke of him with hatred and called for his destruction. The nobles are "a decisive enemy of all citizenship" and everyone "wishing to create a republic ... will not be able to carry out his plan without destroying all of them to the last."

For creation of a free Italian republic Machiavelli proposes a number of measures. Among them, liberation from foreign troops and mercenaries, from petty tyrants and nobles, from the pope and the intrigues of the Catholic Church. In addition, we need a sole ruler with absolute and extraordinary power, who establishes wise laws and orders. He associated the inviolability of laws with ensuring public safety, and thus with the very tranquility of the people. For Machiavelli right- an instrument of power, an expression of power. Everywhere the basis of power "is interdependent, good laws and a good army." Therefore, the main thought, concern and deed of the ruler should be war, military organization and military science - "for war is the only duty that the ruler cannot impose on another."

Machiavelli denies the Italian city-states the power of the people as in a real perspective, and the only political form capable of slowing down the process of degradation is autocracy. “Where (material) is corrupted, even well-ordered laws will not help, unless they are prescribed by a person who enforces them with such great energy that the corrupted material becomes good.” However, he considered tyranny a temporary measure, a bitter but necessary medicine, the need for which would disappear as soon as the development of the disease was stopped.

Machiavelli had a special relationship with religion. This is an important means of politics, a powerful factor in influencing the minds and customs of people. It "helps to command the troops, inspire the people, restrain the virtuous people and shame the vicious." The state must use religion to guide its subjects. But Machiavelli is critical of Christianity, which preaches humility and humility, and highly appreciates the religion of antiquity, which honors "the highest good in the greatness of the spirit, in the strength of the body and in everything that makes people extremely strong." He was also negative about the clergy, with bad examples that deprived the country of "all piety." In this regard, Machiavelli allowed the transformation of religion, but unlike the leaders of the Reformation, he considered the basis of the reform not the ideas of early Christianity, but the ancient religion wholly subservient to policy goals. His conclusion that it is not politics in the service of religion, but religion in the service of politics - sharply diverged from medieval ideas about the relationship between church and state.

Machiavelli resolutely separated politics from morality. Policy(institution, organization and activities of the state) is a special field of activity, which has its own laws that need to be studied and comprehended, and not deduced from St. Scriptures and construct speculatively.

The era of the Middle Ages affected the views of the thinker about the methods methods and techniques political activity. They are completely separated from morality. If morality operates with such categories as "good" - "evil", then politics - "benefit" - "harm". Therefore, the actions of politicians should be evaluated not from the point of view of morality, but according to their results, according to their attitude towards the good of the state.

The methods of exercising power are not only military force, but also cunning, deceit, and deceit. And therefore, political rules and moral norms are incompatible, a statesman should not be faithful to treaties if this harms the interests of society. He must be able to decide on "great, virtuoso atrocities, meanness and betrayal." "Let him blame his actions, if only to justify the results." The ideal statesman for Machiavelli was the Duke of Romagna Cesare Borgia, a genius of cunning in politics.

At the same time, Machiavelli believed that treachery and cruelty should be committed in such a way that the authority of the authorities would not be undermined. From this he deduced a favorite rule of politics: "People should either be caressed or destroyed, because a person can avenge a small evil, but cannot avenge a big one." "It is better to kill than to threaten - threatening, you create and warn the enemy, killing - you get rid of the enemy completely." The ruler should pay special attention to creating his own image. “The most important thing for the sovereign is to try with all his actions to create for himself the glory of a great man, endowed with an outstanding mind ... everyone knows what you look like, few know what you really are, and these latter will not dare to challenge the opinion of the majority, behind which the state is worth.

The rules given here and other rules of politics have received the name "Machiavellianism" in science as a symbol of political cunning. Thus, Machiavelli formulated and substantiated the main program requirements of the bourgeoisie: the inviolability of private property, the security of the person and property, the republic as the best form of ensuring the "benefits of freedom", the condemnation of the nobility, the subordination of religion to politics. His ideas, with the exception of "Machiavellianism", were accepted by Spinoza, Rousseau and other theorists.

2. Political and legal ideas of the Reformation