Revolution as a kind of social progress can be. social revolution economic reform social progress

social change is one of the most common sociological concepts. Depending on the research paradigm, social change can be understood as the transition of a social object from one state to another, a change in socio-economic formation, a significant modification in the social organization of society, its institutions and social structure, a change in established social patterns of behavior, renewal of institutional forms, etc.

social change can be done in two ways:

• the first, evolutionary way, suggests that changes are the result of the natural, progressive development of society;
• second, revolutionary the path implies a radical reorganization of the social order, carried out at the will of social subjects.

In classical sociology until the beginning of the 20th century, the evolutionary and revolutionary concept of the development of society was based on the recognition of the objectivity of social knowledge, which corresponded to the general scientific paradigm of the 18th–19th centuries, according to which scientific knowledge is based on objective reality. The difference was that the thinkers - adherents of evolutionism believed that objective knowledge about the nature of social reality helps to rationally navigate social actions and that social nature should not be violated, while supporters of revolutionary changes, on the contrary, proceeded from the need to reorganize the world in accordance with its internal regularities.

The evolutionary approach originates in the studies of Charles Darwin. The main problem of evolutionism in sociology was the identification of the determining factor of social change. Auguste Comte considered the progress of knowledge to be such a factor. The development of knowledge from its theological, mystified form to a positive form determines the transition from a military society based on obedience to deified heroes and leaders, to an industrial society, which is carried out thanks to the human mind.

Herbert Spencer saw the essence of evolution and social change in the complication of the structure of society, the strengthening of its differentiation, which is accompanied by the growth of integration processes that restore the unity of the social organism at each new stage of its development. Social progress is accompanied by the complication of society, leading to an increase in the independence of citizens, to an increase in the freedom of individuals, to a more complete service of their interests by society.

Emile Durkheim considered the process of social change as a transition from mechanical solidarity, based on the underdevelopment and similarity of individuals and their social functions, to organic solidarity, arising on the basis of the division of labor and social differentiation, which leads to the integration of people into a single society and is the highest moral principle of society. .

Karl Marx considered the productive forces of society to be the determining factor in social change, the growth of which leads to a change in the mode of production, which, being the basis for the development of the whole society, ensures a change in the socio-economic formation. On the one hand, according to Marx's "materialistic understanding of history", the productive forces develop objectively and evolutionarily, increasing man's power over nature. On the other hand, in the course of their development, new classes are formed whose interests come into conflict with the interests of the ruling classes, which determine the nature of existing production relations. Thus, a conflict arises within the mode of production, formed by the unity of the productive forces and production relations. The progress of society is possible only on the basis of a radical renewal of the mode of production, and new economic and political structures can appear only as a result of a social revolution carried out by new classes against the former, dominant ones. Therefore, social revolutions, according to Marx, are the locomotives of history, ensuring the renewal and acceleration of the development of society. Marx's works present evolutionary and revolutionary approaches to the analysis of social change.

Max Weber was opposed to the idea that the social sciences could discover the laws of social development in a similar way to the natural sciences. He believed, however, that it was possible to make generalizations characterizing social change. Weber saw their driving force in the fact that a person, relying on various religious, political, moral values, creates certain social structures that facilitate social development, as it always happened in the West, or hinder this development, which Weber considered characteristic of the countries of the East.

social revolution- a sharp qualitative upheaval in the social structure of society; a way to move from one form of socio-political structure to another. Social revolutions are subdivided into anti-imperialist, anti-colonial, national liberation, bourgeois and bourgeois-democratic, people's and people's democratic, socialist, etc.

The nature, scale and concrete content of any revolution are determined by the conditions of the socio-economic formation it is called upon to eliminate, as well as by the specifics of the socio-economic system for which it clears the ground. As we move to higher stages of social development, the scope expands, the content deepens, and the objective tasks of the revolution become more complex. In the early stages of the history of society (the transition from a primitive communal system to a slave-owning system, from a slave-owning to a feudal one), the revolution took place predominantly spontaneously and consisted of a combination of sporadic, in most cases local mass movements and uprisings. In the transition from feudalism to capitalism, the revolution takes on the features of a nationwide process in which the conscious activity of political parties and organizations plays an ever greater role.

Classes and social strata, which, by their objective position in the system of production relations, are interested in the overthrow of the existing system and are capable of participating in the struggle for the victory of a more progressive system, act as the driving forces of the revolution.

Most of the modern concepts of revolutionary social changes developed within the framework of the modernist approach are based on Marx's assessments and interpretation of the events of the Great French Revolution of 1789. The Marxist theory of revolutions focuses on radical changes in the economic and political organization of society, a change in the basic forms of social life. Today, the vast majority of researchers agree that revolutions lead to fundamental, all-encompassing, multidimensional changes that affect the very foundation of the social order.

A detailed analysis of the concepts that can be attributed to the "modernist" direction in the study of revolutions is given by Peter Sztompka. He highlights four theories of revolution:

1. behaviorist, or behavioral, - a theory proposed in 1925 by Pitirim Sorokin, according to which the causes of revolutions lie in the suppression of the basic instincts of the majority of the population and the inability of the authorities to influence the changing behavior of the masses;
2. psychological - represented by the concepts of James Davis and Ted Gurr, who see the cause of revolutions in the fact that the masses are painfully aware of their poverty and social injustice and rise to rebellion as a result;
3. structural - when analyzing revolutions, it focuses on the macrostructural level and denies psychological factors; a modern representative of this trend is Ted Skokpol.
4. political - considers revolutions as the result of an imbalance of power and the struggle of rival factions for control of the state (Charles Tiley).

In some modern studies, revolutionary changes in society are considered as a "moment of social evolution". Thus, the original meaning of the term "revolution" in the natural and social sciences (revolvo - Latin "return", "circulation"), forgotten since the time of Marx, is restored.

From the point of view of social progress, it is more preferable to carry out reasonable economic, social and political reforms in the state in accordance with the laws of development inherent in it. If the reforms being undertaken are contrary to the nature of society, if they are not corrected as a result of “feedback”, then the likelihood of a revolution increases. Although revolution is more painful than social reform, in some cases it must be regarded as a positive development; Ultimately, it helps to prevent the process of disintegration of society and its destruction.

social reform- this is a transformation, reorganization, a change in any aspect of social life that does not destroy the foundations of the existing social structure, leaving power in the hands of the former ruling class. Understood in this sense, the path of gradual transformation of existing relations is opposed to revolutionary explosions that sweep away the old order, the old system, to the ground. Marxism considered the evolutionary process, which preserved for a long time many remnants of the past, too painful for the people.

Today, great reforms (that is, revolutions carried out "from above") are recognized as the same social anomalies as great revolutions. Both of these ways of resolving social contradictions are opposed to the normal, healthy practice of "permanent reform in a self-regulating society." A new concept of reform-innovation is introduced. Innovation is understood as an ordinary, one-time improvement associated with an increase in the adaptive capabilities of a social organism in given conditions.

XX–21st century

Seminar plan

5.1. Revolution: concept, essence, theoretical concepts. Revolutions in Russian socio-political history and their consequences.

5.2. Reform: concept, essence, main types. Features of Russian reforms. Reforms of the 20th century and their characteristics.

5.3. Modernization: concept, essence, typology. Problems of modernization of modern Russia.

The experience of world history shows that the main ways to resolve political, economic and social contradictions in society are revolutions and reforms. The history of Russia in this sense is no exception.

5.1. Revolution: concept, essence, theoretical concepts. Revolutions in Russian socio-political history and their consequences

The revolution(from lat. revolutio - turn, coup) - a deep qualitative change in the development of any phenomena of nature, society or knowledge. The concept of "revolution" is most widely used to characterize socio-political development, when there is a leap - a coup (explosion), a quick, rapid, fundamental change that transforms the essence of the system. This distinguishes revolution from evolution, that is, a gradual change in certain aspects of social life.

Revolution social- a radical, qualitative, profound revolution in the development of society, all its spheres, a way to change one socio-economic and socio-cultural system for another, more progressive one.

Revolutions are the result and the highest manifestation of the class struggle. The driving forces of the social revolution are classes and social strata interested in the victory of a more progressive social system. The main question of such a revolution is the conquest of state power, the establishment of the political domination of the revolutionary class or classes, and then the transformation of public life. There are social revolutions: bourgeois, bourgeois-democratic, national liberation, socialist. They differ in their goals. For example, bourgeois revolutions aim at the destruction of the feudal system or its remnants.

The attitude to revolutions in world socio-political thought is ambiguous. Representatives of classical liberalism of the XVII-XVIII centuries. believed that if the government violates the terms of the social contract, then revolutionary resistance to despotism can be legitimate. They justified not only the revolutions in England and France, but also the American Revolutionary War. However, in the XIX century. Impressed by the extremes of real revolutionary processes, liberalism gradually evolved towards liberal reformism.

The generally recognized “prophet of conservatism” Edmund Burke (1729–1797) gave a negative assessment of the revolution. Reflecting on the French Revolution at the end of the 18th century, he wrote that revolution is a social evil. Society must follow principles such as stability, balance, and gradual renewal. The conservatives saw the causes of the revolution in the appearance and dissemination of false and harmful ideas.

Unlike the bourgeois ideologists, who denied the historical inevitability of the revolution, the representatives of Marxism believed that revolutions are powerful engines of social progress, "the locomotives of history." In particular, Karl Marx (1818–1883) created one of the first theoretical concepts of revolution. He considered the conflict between the growth of the productive forces of society and the outdated system of production relations, which manifests itself in the aggravation of social contradictions between the ruling and oppressed classes, to be the economic basis of the revolution. This conflict is resolved in the "epoch of social revolution", by which the founder of Marxism understood a long transition from one socio-economic formation to another. The culminating moment of this transition is the actual socio-political revolution. K. Marx saw the reasons for such a revolution in the class struggle, which he considered the driving force of social progress. In the course of this revolution, the more advanced social class overthrows the reactionary class and brings about urgent changes in all spheres of social life.

Marx considered the highest type of socio-political revolution to be the proletarian or socialist revolution. In the course of such a revolution, the proletariat overthrows the power of the bourgeoisie and establishes its own dictatorship to crush the resistance of the overthrown classes and abolish private property, and then begins the transition to a new communist society. It was assumed that the socialist revolution would be worldwide and would begin in the most developed European countries, since it required a high degree of maturity of the material prerequisites, the new social order.

In practice, Marxist ideas were picked up in countries that, from Marx's point of view, were not suitable for starting a communist experiment. Such was Russia, where in 1917 the world's first victorious October Socialist Revolution took place. It, being systemic, transformed not only political institutions, but also changed all spheres of life of Russian society without exception. It went far beyond the Russian framework, became the most important event of the 20th century, which largely predetermined its dynamics.

In addition to Marxism in the XIX century. other attempts were made to create revolutionary theories. Thus, the French historian and sociologist Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859), realizing the inevitability of bourgeois transformations, believed that the cause of revolutionary events is not the economic crisis and political oppression in themselves, but their psychological perception, when the masses at one time or another begin to perceive their situation as unbearable. He rejected the inevitability of the French Revolution.

One of the most famous sociological concepts of revolution at the beginning of the 20th century. was the concept of the Italian sociologist Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923). He saw the most important reason for the revolution in the degeneration of the ruling elite, when its incompetence grows and society plunges into a crisis due to its erroneous managerial decisions. Against this background, a counter-elite is formed from the lower strata, uniting around itself the masses of those dissatisfied with the ruling elite. When the counter-elite manages to squeeze out and replace the old elite with the help of the masses, this process can be called "mass circulation of the elite, or simply a revolution." Thus, V. Pareto believed that revolutions are a change in the ruling elites: "some rise, others fall into decline." This happened in Russia as part of the February Revolution of 1917, when the tsarist elite, after the abdication of Nicholas II for himself and for his son, left, and a new one took its place, but the effectiveness of its activity was no higher, since it did not have a real experience in government, special knowledge, and most importantly - a reasonable attitude to solving the most important socio-political tasks of that most difficult period. Because of this, the Bolshevik counter-elite began to form very quickly, which, relying on Marxist theory, came to power in October 1917.

The creator of the modern concept of revolution was P. A. Sorokin (1889–1968), who further developed the ideas of V. Pareto. He noted that a revolution needed not only a “crisis from the bottom”, but also a “crisis from the top”. The "crisis of the lower classes", from the point of view of P. Sorokin, is associated with the general suppression of innate "basic" instincts (digestive, freedom, self-preservation, etc.), which leads to a revolutionary explosion. Sorokin's "crisis at the top" as well as Pareto's is connected with the degeneration of the ruling elite. Sorokin's attitude to revolutions was negative, since he considered them the worst way to solve the material and spiritual problems of the masses.

Among modern points of view on revolutions, the theory of J. Davis and T. Garr is of interest, which says that people are only imbued with revolutionary ideas when they begin to think about what they should have in justice and what they have, and see a significant difference. It is then, from the point of view of the above scientists, that the syndrome of relative deprivation arises, that is, the gap between value expectations and value opportunities.

Finishing the analysis of the theoretical concepts of the revolution, it should be noted that none of them can fully explain such a complex socio-political phenomenon.

The October Socialist Revolution of 1917 is a complex, multi-level historical phenomenon, with the help of which the Bolsheviks tried to create a new social system. It combined the agrarian, proletarian, national liberation, anti-war and general democratic types of revolution and had a huge impact on the further development of the world (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Scheme of the October Revolution of 1917

Using the provisions of the above theories, one can also explain the events of the 1980s–1990s, which put an end to the system of “developed socialism” in the USSR. Many specific features of the socio-political development of Russia during this period were a repetition of the specific features of the Russian revolutions of the early 20th century. These are the “crisis of the top”, and the “crisis of the bottom”, and the vigorous activity of the opposition-minded Russian intelligentsia, prone to utopian solutions and having no political experience, and the separatist aspirations of the national elites, and the psychological characteristics of Russians who are prone to quick revolutionary ways to solve their problems after a long patience, etc.

5.2. Reform: concept, essence, main types. Features of Russian reforms. Reforms of the 20th century and their characteristics

Reform(from lat. reformo - transformation) - a change in any essential aspect of social life carried out from above by the ruling circles while maintaining the foundations of the existing social structure. Reforms vary in scope. They can be large-scale or complex and cover different aspects of public life, or they can concern only certain aspects. Comprehensive reforms carried out in time, solving urgent problems by peaceful means, can prevent a revolution.

Reforms, in comparison with revolutions, have their own characteristics:

Revolution - radical transformation, reform - partial;

· the revolution is radical, the reform is more gradual;

· revolution (social) destroys the former system, the reform preserves its foundations;

The revolution is carried out to a large extent spontaneously, the reform - consciously (therefore, in a certain sense, the reform can be called "revolution from above", and the revolution - "reform from below").

Reforms come in many forms.

1. Radical (systemic). They affect many aspects of social life, and as a result of them there is a gradual change in the basis, and society moves to a new stage of development. For example, the economic reforms of E. T. Gaidar.

2. Moderate reforms. They retain the foundations of the old system, but modernize them. For example, the reforms of N. S. Khrushchev.

3. Minimal reforms. Reforms that lead to minor changes in politics, government, and the economy. For example, the reforms of L. I. Brezhnev.

Russian reforms had their own characteristic features:

· Reforms almost always started from above, except for the reforms carried out under the pressure of the revolutionary movement during the first Russian revolution of 1905-1907.

· When embarking on reforms, the reformers often did not have a clear program for their implementation and did not foresee their results. For example, M. S. Gorbachev, who started the “perestroika”.

· Reforms were often not carried through to the end and were half-hearted due to the indecision of the reformers, the resistance of officials and certain social strata, lack of finance, etc.

· In the history of Russia, political reforms aimed at the democratization of society have rarely been carried out. The most global of them are the political reforms of MS Gorbachev.

· An important role in Russian reforms was played by personal character, much depended on the ruler. It was he who made the final decision.

· Russian reforms alternated with counter-reforms, when the results of reforms were liquidated, resulting in a partial or complete return to the pre-reform order.

· When carrying out reforms in Russia, the experience of Western countries was widely used.

· Reforms have always been carried out at the expense of the people, accompanied by a deterioration in their financial situation.

Reforms of the 20th century made no exception. They began with the transformations of the Prime Minister of Russia in 1906–1911. - P. A. Stolypin, who tried to solve the problems of socio-economic and political development after the first Russian revolution of 1905-1907 in order to prevent a new revolutionary explosion. In August 1906, he proposed a program of activities that included: agrarian reform, the introduction of new labor legislation, the reorganization of local self-government on a non-estate basis, the development of judicial reform, the reform of education, followed by the introduction of compulsory primary education, the introduction of zemstvos in the western Russian provinces, etc. .d. The main goal of this program was to continue the bourgeois modernization of Russia, but without sudden leaps and while respecting the interests of the "historical system" of the country. For its implementation, he asked to give Russia "twenty years of internal and external peace."

The main place in this program was occupied by agrarian reform, designed to solve the agrarian question "from above". The purpose of this reform was to create a class of landowners as a social support for autocracy in the countryside and an opponent of revolutionary movements. To achieve this goal, the ruling circles embarked on the path of destroying the community and organizing the resettlement movement of peasants beyond the Urals in order to allocate them land there.

The results of the new agrarian course were contradictory. On the one hand, Stolypin's agrarian reform contributed to the development of the agrarian sector, the growth of agricultural production, the development of territories beyond the Urals, but, on the other hand, a significant part of the peasantry did not accept the reform, which was of a pro-Western nature. Because of this, the agrarian question remained one of the main ones in the subsequent Russian revolutions of 1917.

Further reformation of the country in the XX century. associated with the activities of the Bolsheviks and their followers in different periods of Soviet history.

1. Summer 1918 - March 1921 - the period of the policy of "war communism", which was formed under the influence of a) the Russian historical tradition, when the state actively interfered in the management of the economy, b) the emergency conditions of the civil war and c) the ideas of socialist theory, according to which the new communist society was presented in the form of a communal state without commodity-money relations, replaced by direct product exchange between town and countryside. Thus, within the framework of this policy, an attempt was made to make a leap into communism with the help of coercive measures on the part of the state, serious economic transformations were carried out aimed at the complete nationalization of industry, planning, the abolition of commodity-money relations, and the forcible seizure of the product produced by the peasants etc. Such transformations were in deep contradiction with the objective laws of social development, led to negative results and forced Lenin to abandon the policy of "war communism".

2. 1921–1928 - the years of the New Economic Policy (NEP), within the framework of which changes were made in agriculture, industry and trade, commodity-money relations were restored, the private sector, market relations, etc. were allowed. On the basis of the NEP, the restoration of the national economy was successfully carried out, but the NEP was considered by the Bolsheviks as a temporary retreat, it went through a series of crises and was canceled.

In January 1924, in connection with the formation of the USSR on December 30, 1922, the first Constitution of the new state and the second Constitution in Russian history after the Constitution of the RSFSR, which consolidated the power of the Soviets in 1918, was adopted.

3. Pre-war period 1929–1941 connected with the accelerated construction of the foundations of socialism (industrialization, the collectivization of agriculture, the cultural revolution) and the formation of an administrative-command system, which would intensify during the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. This period is characterized by an intensive demolition of the NEP: small-scale production is completely ousted from the economy, centralized management of the national economy, planning and strict control over the work of each enterprise are established. In the countryside, there is an accelerated liquidation of individual peasant farms, their dispossession to 15%, although in 1929 kulak farms accounted for only 2-3%. The purpose of this was to eliminate the "last exploiting class". As part of the cultural revolution - an integral part of the Leninist plan for building socialism - associated with industrialization and collectivization, the eradication of illiteracy begins, the training of specialists for the national economy, technical and agricultural universities are created, often with a reduced curriculum, workers' faculties appear to train young people who want to graduate secondary and higher education. The Cultural Revolution also solved another problem - the formation of the socialist consciousness of the working people, the mass indoctrination of the population in the spirit of communist ideology. While affirming the principle of partisanship in literature and art, the principle of "socialist realism", the Communist Party strictly monitored the prevention of dissent there and in society as a whole.

In December 1936, a new Constitution was adopted, where the Soviet Union was proclaimed a socialist state.

4. In the post-war years 1945-1953. continued course to strengthen the totalitarian system. In 1947, a monetary reform was carried out, which made it possible to overcome the complete breakdown of the monetary and financial system, the card system was abolished, and prices were reformed. During this period, an attempt was made to reform the degrading agriculture; censorship intensified in the spiritual life of society, expanded ideological campaigns and repressions.

5. 1953–1964 - the period of the "thaw" - the period of controversial reforms of N. S. Khrushchev in the political, economic and social spheres within the administrative-command system. This is the time when the cult of personality of Stalin was exposed at the XX Congress of the CPSU, the beginning of the dissident movement, the first steps towards the democratization of Soviet society.

6. 1964–1985 - this is the time of L. I. Brezhnev (until 1982) and his successors Yu. V. Andropov and K. U. Chernenko, the time of growing crisis phenomena in society. The first years of Brezhnev's rule are associated with the 1965 reforms in the field of agriculture with the aim of raising it through the use of economic levers (procurement prices were increased, the plan for mandatory grain supplies was reduced, prices for the sale of excess products to the state increased by 50%, etc.) ; industry in order to expand the independence of enterprises; management of the national economy within the framework of the administrative-command system, which gave only temporary success, and then the country began to plunge into "stagnation".

In 1977, a new Constitution of the USSR was adopted - the Constitution of “developed socialism”, which consolidated the leading role of the CPSU in society (Article 6 of the Constitution), which during this period actively fought against the dissident movement.

7. 1985–1991 - the time of Gorbachev's "perestroika", deep reforms in the political, economic, social and cultural spheres, it is characterized by glasnost, the abolition of censorship and the monopoly of the CPSU, the beginning of the creation of a multi-party system and the democratization of the electoral system, attempts to reform the national state structure of the USSR.

Thus, the 20th century was saturated with a large number of reforms and attempts to implement them. It is characterized, on the one hand, as a historical period of great world achievements and victories in various areas of life, and on the other hand, as a period of large-scale mistakes due to disharmony between the economic and political systems of the state. Because of this, modern Russia has faced the historical task of moving towards organic development through new radical reforms.

5.3. Modernization: concept, essence, typology. Problems of modernization of modern Russia

The radical reforms of modern Russia are very often today called systemic modernization, which is designed to bring the country to new historical milestones and horizons of development.

Modernization(from French moderne - the latest, modern) - the process of updating a backward, outdated, traditional social and state structure.

Components of the modernization process:

· in politics - the creation of certain political institutions that should contribute to the real participation of the population in power structures and the influence of the masses on the adoption of specific decisions;

· in the economy - the intensification of the process of economic reproduction, which is achieved due to the growth of differentiation of labor, energy equipment of production, the transformation of science into a productive force and the development of rational production management;

· in the social sphere – the formation of an open society with a dynamic social system. Such a society arises and develops on the basis of market relations, a legal system that regulates the relations of owners and a democratic system;

· in culture - the formation of a highly differentiated, unified culture based on the idea of ​​progress, improvement, natural expression of personal capabilities and feelings, and on the development of individualism.

There are two types of modernization:

1. Primary modernization took place in those countries of Western Europe, the USA, Canada, which were innovators on this path, and unfolded due to internal factors, in particular, fundamental changes in culture, mentality, and worldview. Its formation is associated with the emergence of national centralized states, the emergence of bourgeois relations, and its rise with the first industrial revolution, the destruction of traditional hereditary privileges and the proclamation of equal civil rights, and the democratization of political life.

2. Secondary modernization arises as a result of socio-cultural contacts of countries lagging behind in their development (Russia, Brazil, Turkey, etc.) with already existing centers of industrial culture. Such modernization is carried out mainly with the borrowing of foreign technologies and forms of organization of production and society, inviting foreign specialists, training personnel abroad, and attracting investments. Its main mechanism is simulation processes. It no longer begins in the sphere of culture, but in economics or politics and is defined as catching up modernization.

Modernization is a rather lengthy process. Back in the 19th century, Alexis de Tocqueville formulated the "golden law" of political development, according to which: "the fastest path to freedom leads to the worst form of slavery." He believed that there is nothing more dangerous for a country where the traditions of democracy and freedom are poorly developed than too rapid reforms and changes. Tocqueville's law is quite applicable to the analysis of Russian history at the beginning of the 20th century, when, as a result of the February Revolution of 1917, Russia very quickly moved from autocracy to democracy, and then a few years later to totalitarianism. Because of this, the modern modernization of Russia has been proceeding quite slowly, gradually, for almost two decades. It includes the modernization of the political system, socio-economic, civil society based on fundamental democratic values, foreign policy and security of the country. Its course is significantly influenced by the features of the socio-political development of Russia:

1. Etatism is the decisive role of the state and bureaucracy in reforming the entire social system.

2. The civilizational split of Russian society, which was initiated by the reforms of Peter I. The conflict between two subcultures - "soil" and "civilization" has been going on for three centuries and has not yet been overcome.

3. Inconsistency of pro-Western transformations with the mentality of Russian society and, accordingly, its critical attitude towards them.

4. Democratic ideas in Russia do not have deep roots and traditions.

These features of the Russian historical path make it difficult to solve the problems of the modernization process in modern Russia. Modernization has not yet become a real national strategy, which should be developed by a strategically thinking and socially responsible elite. It is she who should concentrate and mobilize all the resources of the country to solve the problems of modernization and interest the general population in it. And while there is no desire of the elite and society for real changes, while the authorities have not paid serious attention to Russian science and education, which are called upon to be the main engine of our innovative breakthrough, and, therefore, the modernization of the country, the attitude towards it in society is ambiguous. There is a critical attitude, and interesting proposals. For example, about creating conditions and systems for turning overtaking Russian modernization into a leading one, using the experience of post-war Japan, South Korea, China, India and other countries, which will not only catch up with the advanced countries, ensure higher growth rates, but also allow Russia to get ahead .

test questions

1. What are the main theoretical concepts of the revolution.

2. What are the reasons for the February Revolution of 1917 in Russia? Give an answer based on various theoretical concepts.

3. What is the history of the idea of ​​socialism in Russia?

4. Explain the reasons for the coming to power of the Bolsheviks in October 1917.

5. What characteristics distinguish categories such as "revolution" and "reform"?

6. What are the features of Russian reforms?

7. What are the main reforms of the XX century. and their features.

8. What are the essence, content and main types of modernization?

9. Describe the socio-cultural features of Russian modernization.

10. What is the role of the political elite in the implementation of modernization?

11. What, from your point of view, are the prospects for contemporary Russian modernization?

Literature

1. Belyaeva L. A. Social modernization in Russia at the end of the 20th century. M., 1997.

2. Berdyaev N. Origins and meaning of Russian communism. M., 1990.

3. Demidov A. V. The evolution of Russian modernization. M., 1998.

4. Gorbachev M. S. Life and reforms. Book I. M., 1995.

5. Great October socialist revolution. Encyclopedia. 3rd ed. M., 1987.

6. Werth N. History of the Soviet state. 1900–1991 M., 1992.

7. The drama of the Russian revolution: the Bolsheviks and the revolution. M., 2002.

8. From the depths: a collection of articles about the Russian revolution. M., 1990.

9. Kuleshov S. V., Sviridenko Yu. P., Fedulin A. A. Modernization of Russia (XIX–XX centuries): social and political processes: textbook. allowance for universities. M., 2010.

10. Pipes R. Russian Revolution. Ch. I-II. M., 1994.

11. Plyays Ya. A. A new stage in the reform of Russian statehood, problems and prospects. M.; Rostov-on-Don, 2002.

12. Reforms in Russia in the 18th–20th centuries: experience and lessons: textbook. allowance. M., 2010.

13. Starodubrovskaya I. V., Mau V. A. Great revolutions from Cromwell to Putin. M., 2004.

14. Sorokin P. A. Sociology of the revolution. M., 2005.

15. Shubin A. V. Paradoxes of perestroika. Lost chance of the USSR. M., 2005.

6. Ideologies and parties in the socio-political history of Russia in the XX–XXI centuries.

Seminar plan

6.1. Ideology: concept, structure, functions.

6.2. The main types of ideologies.

6.3. Party as a political institution. The history of the formation of the party system in Russia.

6.1. Ideology: concept, structure, functions

The term "ideology" arose at the turn of the XVII–18th century and was introduced into scientific circulation by the French researcher Antoine Destut de Trassi.

Ideology is a theoretical expression in the form of ideas, concepts of ideas of certain social groups about the structure and principles of functioning of a real social organism and a social ideal. Ideology acts as a reflection of the interests, goals, value systems of a particular social subject. The desire of various groups of society to realize their own interests (social, economic, national, etc.) led to the emergence of various political ideologies that began to act as certain doctrines that justify the claims of a particular group to power, its use.

The real "weight" of political ideology depends on the degree of its influence on public consciousness.

There are several levels of political ideology:

- theoretical-conceptual- the most abstract level at which the ideals and values ​​of a certain class, nation, state are revealed and the main provisions are formed in relation to the main spheres of the life of society and man. In the Marxist-Leninist ideology, which the Bolshevik Party adhered to, this level includes, for example, the provision on the absence of private property in a communist society;

- level of ideological propaganda and agitation on which adaptation takes place, the translation of basic requirements from the language of socio-philosophical principles into the language of the program and slogans, the normative basis for making managerial decisions and the political behavior of citizens is formed. Referring to the above example from the Marxist-Leninist ideology, the provision on the absence of private property is concretized into the requirement "Land - to the peasants, factories and factories - to the workers";

- updated level b determines the degree of assimilation of ideas, goals, principles of a particular ideology, its influence on the practical activities of people, their political behavior. It is this level that allows, through the study of public opinion, to determine the degree of influence, reliability of political ideology.

Political ideology performs a number of functions in society:

orientational: sets a system of meanings and orientations of human activity;

· mobilization: promotes the rallying of social groups and individuals around any ideas and slogans, encourages them to take political action;

Integrative: on the basis of adherence to a certain ideology, political socialization and unification of people takes place;

· expression and protection of the interests of a certain social group, usually institutionalized in political parties, movements, for which an important task is to guide the political behavior of citizens.

Ideas about how society should develop and what methods to achieve this development are seriously different from each other. Therefore, there is a wide ideological and political spectrum of politically significant ideological trends, as well as their carriers (parties and movements), which are included in the political life of society.

social revolution- a radical, sharp qualitative upheaval in the entire social structure of society; way of moving from one form of political organization to another

TYPES OF SOCIAL REVOLUTIONS:

1. Anti-imperialist
2. Anti-colonial
3. National liberation
4. bourgeois
5. bourgeois-democratic
6. People's and people's democratic
7. socialist and others.

Social reform (evolution)- the process of progressive development of society and its elements from the simplest forms to complex ones.

The concept of social progress.

Progress- progress.

Turgot and Condorcet - pioneers of the ideas of progress (France)

Features of the first concepts:

1) the ideal beginning - the root cause of changes in the world - the improvement of human intelligence

2) the development of society was perceived smoothly, evolutionarily, in a straight line

3) within the same social formation

Progress criteria:

1) the development of the mind, morality, morality

2) consciousness of freedom (a measure of freedom that society can give to an individual)

3) progressive is that which contributes to the rise of humanism

The world-historical process of the ascent of human societies from the state of savagery to the heights of civilization is called social progress. This generalizing concept includes economic, technical and cultural progress. The foundation of social progress is technical. Science stimulates technological progress. Hand guns are being replaced by machines, which are giving way to automated systems.

Progress occurs when acceleration leads only to positive changes in society. Most societies, despite temporary deviations, develop progressively: there is not a single society in which the tools of labor would not be improved, but, on the contrary, deteriorated.

Distinguish reformist (gradual) and revolutionary (leap-like) types of social progress.

Reform is a partial improvement in some area of ​​life, a series of gradual changes that do not affect the foundations of the existing social order.

A revolution is a complete or complex change in all or most aspects of social life, affecting the foundations of the existing social system, representing the transition of society from one qualitative state to another, a set of a large number or complex of reforms carried out simultaneously, in order to change the foundations of the social order. Revolutions are short-term and long-term.

Reforms are called social if they relate to transformations in those areas of society or those aspects of public life that are directly related to people, are reflected in their level and lifestyle, health, participation in public life, access to social benefits.

concept<социальные изменения>is the starting point for describing the dynamic processes taking place in society. This concept does not contain an evaluative component and covers a wide range of various social changes, regardless of their direction. In the broadest sense, social change refers to the transition of social systems, their elements and structures, connections and interactions from one state to another. Sociologists distinguish four types of social change:

structural social changes (concerning the structures of various social formations - families, mass communities, social institutions and organizations, social strata, etc.);

procedural social changes (affecting social processes, reflecting the relations of solidarity, tension, conflict, equality and subordination between various subjects of social interactions);

functional social changes (concerning the functions of various social systems, structures, institutions, organizations, etc.);

motivational social changes (occurring in the sphere of motivations of individual and collective activity; for example, during the formation of a market economy, the interests and motivational attitudes of significant sections of the population change significantly).

According to their nature and degree of influence on society, social changes are divided into evolutionary and revolutionary.

Evolutionary refers to gradual, smooth, partial changes in society. They can cover all spheres of society's life - economic, political, social, spiritual and cultural. Evolutionary changes most often take the form of social reforms, which involve the implementation of various measures to transform certain aspects of public life. Social reforms, as a rule, do not affect the foundations of the social system of society, but change only its individual parts and structural elements.

Revolutionary refers to relatively fast (compared to the previous social evolution), third-party, fundamental changes in society. Revolutionary formations are spasmodic in nature and represent the transition of society from one qualitative state to another.

N.I. Kareev: the main areas of sociological creativity

4. The theory of progress in the sociological concept of N. I. Kareeva

Like most sociologists of his time, Kareev is a strict evolutionist. The essence of the historical process, according to Kareev, lies in the interaction of the individual and the environment ...

N.K. Mikhailovsky on social progress

Section 1.

The idea of ​​progress in the history of social thought

The idea of ​​social progress is not new. Many thinkers addressed this issue - from Heraclitus and Empedocles to K. Marx and F. Engels Spirkin A.G. Philosophy. M., 2002. S.

720.. In the history of social thought, perhaps, there was not a single major thinker ...

Signs of a social institution in Christianity

1.1 Signs of a social institution

Each social institution has both specific features and common features with other institutions.

The following signs of social institutions are distinguished: attitudes and patterns of behavior (for the institution of the family - affection, respect ...

3. Reasons for the progress of morality

There are several hypotheses explaining the progress of morality: 1) In tolerant societies, the energy of people is directed towards cooperation, and not towards fighting among themselves.

Therefore, more moral societies are more economically efficient...

Progress and regression in morality

4. The problem of the progress of morality

Throughout history, morality has always been the main condition for the socialization of the individual, taking it beyond the limits of purely natural significance.

The problems of moral progress and its criteria are located at the intersection of various sciences: history and ethics...

Modern methods of social forecasting

1.3 Basic principles and criteria of social forecasting methodology

The basis for the formation of forecasts is static information and an information array - the concept of scientifically determined characteristics and factors that comprehensively characterize the object of forecasting ...

social progress

Chapter 1.

Essence of social progress

social progress

2.1 Concepts of social progress

society change social progress Sociology began with attempts to unravel the "meaning" of history and establish the laws of social change. The founders of sociology O. Comte and G. Spencer set as their goal to achieve an understanding of that ...

social progress

2.2 Drivers of social progress

The essence of any process of reality is the development of dialectical systems that form this process.

The process of development of human society is, first of all, the development of the dialectical system "society - nature" ...

1. O. Comte and other classics of sociology on the essence and functions of social progress in the development of society

Auguste Comte (1798-1857), having developed a three-stage model of the development of society (religious, metaphysical and positive stages), believed that contemporary society was on the verge of transition to the third stage ...

Social progress and social modernization of society

2.

Reformist and revolutionary types of social progress in the past and present

By its nature, social development is divided into evolutionary and revolutionary. The nature of this or that social development depends primarily on the method of social change ...

Statistical reporting

The role of technological progress in organizing surveillance

The development of economic reforms in Russia poses new challenges for state statistics in the field of methodology and organization of statistical observation…

Structure of social interactions

1.1 Signs of social action

The problem of social action was introduced by Max Weber.

He gave the following definition of it: “A social action is such an action, which, in accordance with its subjective meaning, includes in the protagonist attitudes towards that ...

Organization social development management

1.4. Indicators and criteria of social development

Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the level of development, state, trends and directions of social Dynamics, used in planning to assess the compliance of the actual situation with scientifically based requirements ...

Factors and stages of the formation of a social institution

1.2 Signs, functions, structure and criteria for the classification of social institutions

Among the general features of a social institution are: - the allocation of a certain circle of subjects entering into relationships in the process of activity ...

There are two forms of social progress: revolution and reform - section History, Philosophy of History Revolution - This is a Complete Or Complex Change of All Or More ...

The revolution- this is a complete or complex change in all or most aspects of public life, affecting the foundations of the existing social order. Until recently, the revolution was seen as a universal "law of transition" from one socio-economic formation to another.

But scientists could not find signs of a social revolution in the transition from a primitive communal system to a class one. It was necessary to expand the concept of revolution so much that it was suitable for any formational transition, but this led to the emasculation of the original content of the term.

The "mechanism" of a real revolution could only be discovered in the social revolutions of modern times (during the transition from feudalism to capitalism).

According to Marxist methodology, a social revolution is understood as a radical change in the life of society, changing its structure and signifying a qualitative leap in its progressive development.

The most general, deepest cause of the advent of the era of social revolution is the conflict between the growing productive forces and the established system of social relations and institutions. The aggravation of economic, political and other contradictions in society on this objective basis leads to a revolution.

A revolution is always an active political action of the popular masses and has as its first aim the transfer of the leadership of society into the hands of a new class.

The social revolution differs from evolutionary transformations in that it is concentrated in time and the masses directly act in it.

The dialectic of the concepts of "reform - revolution" is very complex. A revolution, as a deeper action, usually "absorbs" the reform: the action "from below" is supplemented by the action "from above".

Today, many scholars call for abandoning the exaggeration in history of the role of the social phenomenon that is called “social revolution”, from declaring it an obligatory regularity in solving urgent historical problems, since the revolution was by no means always the main form of social transformation.

Much more often, changes in society occurred as a result of reforms.

Reform- this is a transformation, reorganization, a change in any aspect of social life that does not destroy the foundations of the existing social structure, leaving power in the hands of the former ruling class. Understood in this sense, the path of gradual transformation of existing relations is opposed to revolutionary explosions that sweep away the old order, the old system, to the ground. Marxism considered the evolutionary process, which preserved for a long time many remnants of the past, too painful for the people.

And he argued that since reforms are always carried out "from above" by forces that already have power and do not want to part with it, the result of reforms is always lower than expected: the transformations are half-hearted and inconsistent.

Today great reforms (i.e. revolutions "from above") are recognized as the same social anomalies as great revolutions.

Both of these ways of resolving social contradictions are opposed to the normal, healthy practice of "permanent reform in a self-regulating society."

The dilemma "reform - revolution" is replaced by the clarification of the relationship between permanent regulation and reform. In this context, both the reform and the revolution “treat” an already neglected disease (the first with therapeutic methods, the second with surgical intervention), while constant and possibly early prevention is necessary.

Therefore, in modern social science, the emphasis is shifted from the antinomy of "reform - revolution" to "reform - innovation".

Innovation is understood as an ordinary, one-time improvement associated with an increase in the adaptive capabilities of a social organism in given conditions.

All topics in this section:

Philosophy of history
Exam questions No. 42-44, 57 Society is a historically developing system, the study of which is the subject of a complex of social sciences and humanities.

In philosophy

Formative approach
World-historical progress was presented by K. Marx as a natural-historical process of changing socio-economic formations. Socio-economic formation - society, find

Civilization approach
Philosophy of Arnold Toynbee A. Toynbee put forward two hypotheses: 1.

There is no single process of development of human history; only specific local areas evolve.

Cultural approach
This approach to history was widely used by the German philosopher Oswald Schlengler. Each culture exists in isolation and closed. There are eight such cultures: Indian,

The problem of the source of social development
The meaning of the problem of the source of the development of society lies in the following questions: why is the historical dynamics of society possible?

What in society is an objective source that generates history

The problem of the subject and driving forces of the historical process
In a brief formulation, the essence of the problem posed can be expressed: "Who is the creator of history?".

In this regard, in the philosophy of history, two close ones are used,

Concepts of elites (elitism).
This concept took shape in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. (V. Pareto, G. Mosca). Society is divided into two unequal parts, the smaller of which is the elite. Its main feature is the ability to create

crowd phenomenon.
This approach is associated with the analysis of the phenomenon of the crowd (mass), the negative impact of which on social events can be seen throughout world history and has been the subject of discussion.

History of the concept
The very idea of ​​progress originated in ancient times.

Progress Criteria
Of particular difficulty is the problem of criteria for social progress. A comprehensive measure of progress should be applied to society. In fact, each sphere of society requires its own special

Social revolutions and social reforms. Concept of social progress

In the history of sociology, a variety of mechanisms (models, forms) for the transformation of society have been presented. For example, G. Tarde formulated the law of imitation, according to which it is "imitation" that is the main mechanism of social transformations.

However, the most commonly used terms to describe the mechanisms of transformation of society are the concepts of "revolution" and "reform" ("evolution").

Revolution (lat. - turn, coup) - a deep qualitative change in the development of any phenomena of nature, society or knowledge (geological revolution, industrial revolution, scientific and technological revolution, cultural revolution, etc.). A revolution means a break in gradualness, a qualitative leap in development.

Revolution differs from evolution (the gradual development of a process), as well as from reforms. The concept of revolution is most widely used to characterize social development.

A social revolution is a way of moving from a historically obsolete era to a more progressive one; a radical qualitative revolution in the entire social structure of society.

The question of the role of revolutions in social development is the subject of a sharp ideological struggle. Many representatives of the "sociology of revolution" argue that the revolution as a form of social development is inefficient and fruitless, associated with enormous costs and inferior to evolutionary forms of development in all respects.

Representatives of Marxism, on the contrary, call social revolutions "the locomotive of history." They insist that social progress takes place only in revolutionary epochs. Thus, in Marxism the progressive role of social revolutions is emphasized in every possible way:

1) social revolutions resolve numerous contradictions that slowly accumulate during the period of evolutionary development, open up more scope for the progress of productive forces and society as a whole;

2) lead to a revolutionary emancipation of the forces of the people, raise the masses of the people to a new level of activity and development;

3) liberate the personality, stimulate its spiritual and moral development, increase the degree of its freedom;

4) they discard the obsolete, keep everything progressive from the old, thus social revolutions are a solid foundation for the successful progressive development of society.

In real development processes, evolution and revolution are equally necessary components and form a contradictory unity.

When describing a social revolution, two most characteristic features stand out:

1) social revolution as a break in gradualness, as a qualitative transition to the next stage of development, as a manifestation of the creativity of the masses and revolutionary elites (the Marxist doctrine of social revolution as a qualitative leap in the transition of society to a higher stage of development);

2) social revolution as rapid and large-scale transformations in society (here the revolution is opposed to reforms).

In social life, the term "reform" is added to the concepts of evolution and revolution.

reform (lat.

- transformation) - change, reorganization of any aspect of social life that does not destroy the foundations of the existing social structure.

From a formal point of view, reform means innovation of any content, but in practice, reform is usually understood as a progressive transformation.

Social (public) progress.

Most sociological theories of the 19th century were influenced by the concept of social progress. The idea that changes in the world occur in a certain direction arose in ancient times.

At the same time, progress was opposed to regress - in the sense that the progressive movement is characterized as a transition from the lower to the higher, from the simple to the complex, from the less perfect to the more perfect.

Attempts have been made to find the underlying laws of evolution. G. Spencer and other supporters of social Darwinism considered social evolution as an analogy of biological evolution. At the same time, evolution was interpreted as a unidirectional transition of society from homogeneous and simple structures to increasingly diverse and interdependent ones. Darwin's "struggle for existence" and "survival of the fittest" were considered the basic laws of the development of society. These laws of nature were likened to the laws of free competition.

So, social progress means the ascent to more complex forms of social life.

As applied to the topic under discussion, this means the growth of progressive social changes: the improvement of living conditions, the development of science, technology and education, the emergence of more rights and freedoms, etc. However, it is difficult to talk about progress in relation to many social phenomena, since the development of some phenomena of social life is non-linear.

For example, within the framework of art, religion and some other social phenomena, the highest models of development were created already several centuries or even millennia ago.

At the same time, with regard to such phenomena as engineering, technology, etc., one can quite unambiguously speak of constantly progressing phenomena. Therefore, social progress is spoken of as a trinity of several tendencies (progressiveness, regressivity, movement in a circle). Everything depends on which of these tendencies (as applied to a particular social phenomenon) prevails. Evaluation of progressivity or regressivity of a phenomenon should be based on objective indicators.

This raises the question of the criteria for progress. For example, in Marxism, the level of development of the productive forces and the nature of production relations were taken as a general historical criterion for the progressive development of mankind. In technocratic theories, the level of development of society is measured by the criterion of the development of technology and technology.

In a number of other social teachings, the level of development of human thinking, morality in society, religiosity, etc., serve as criteria.

In sociology, several common concepts are used to characterize the development of society.

Modernization. There are several definitions of modernization: dichotomous (modernization as a transition from one state of society - traditional - to another - industrial).

Historical (description of the processes through which modernization is carried out: transformations, revolutions, etc.). Instrumental (modernization as a transformation of tools and methods of development and control over the natural and social environment).

Mental (definition through a mental shift - a special state of mind, which is characterized by faith in progress, a tendency to economic growth, a willingness to adapt to change). Civilizational (civilization as modernity, i.e. modernization as the spread of a given civilization).

As elements modernization, the following processes are distinguished: industrialization, urbanization, bureaucratization, nation building, commercialization, professionalization, secularization, literacy and mass media, the growth of social and professional mobility, etc.

Modernization acts primarily as the industrialization of society.

Historically, the emergence of modern societies is closely linked with the emergence of industry. All characteristics associated with the concept of modernity (modernity) can be correlated with the industrial type of society. Modernization is a continuous and endless process. It can take place over centuries, or it can happen quickly.

Since the development of different societies is characterized by irregularity and unevenness, there are always developed and lagging regions.

With modernization and industrialization, a noticeable transformation of the respective societies takes place (the types and nature of the social groups included in them are transformed, etc.). Thus, during the transition to a bourgeois society, the former class organization of society gave way to a social class structure, and earlier, consanguineous primitive communities were replaced by castes and slavery.

Bureaucratization is the formation of a hierarchical social structure for managing organizations on the principles of rationality, qualification, efficiency and impersonality.

Urbanization is the process of moving the rural population to cities and the concomitant concentration of economic activity, administrative and political institutions, and communication networks in urban areas.

Urbanization is closely related to the decline in the share of the agricultural sector and the wide spread of industry.

In the history of sociology, several typologies of the historical development of society have developed:

a) two-tier: from pre-civilizational to civilizational form of hostel;

b) three-tier: agrarian society - industrial society - post-industrial society;

c) four-link: agrarian society - industrial society - post-industrial society - information (network) society;

d) five-link (Marxist typology): primitive communal society - slave society - feudal society - bourgeois society - communist society.

The five-link typology is based on the doctrine of socio-economic

formations. A socio-economic formation is a set of production relations determined by the level of development of the productive forces and determining superstructural phenomena.

Socio-economic formation

Characteristic

Primitive communal. Low level of development of productive forces, primitive forms of labor organization, lack of private property.

Social equality and personal freedom. Absence of public power isolated from society.

slaveholding. Private ownership of the means of production, including "talking tools" (slaves).

Social inequality and class stratification (slaves and slave owners). The state and the legal regulation of public life appear. Non-economic coercion prevails.

feudal.

Large landed property of the feudal lords. The labor of free, but economically (rarely politically) dependent peasants from the feudal lords. The main classes are feudal lords and peasants. Non-economic coercion is supplemented by economic labor incentives.

Capitalist. Highly developed productive forces. The main role of industry in the economy.

The class structure of society is based on the relationship between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Private ownership of the main means of production. Personal freedom of workers, economic coercion. Formal equality of citizens.

Communist. No private ownership of the means of production.

State (public) ownership of the means of production. Lack of exploitative classes. A fair and even distribution of the produced product among all members of society. High level of development of productive forces and high organization of labor. The withering away of the state and law.

All these typologies have a common feature - they recognize the steady and progressive nature of the development of society from one stage to another.

Usually, the analysis of the evolution of societies begins with a description of the society of hunters and gatherers. , where the main unit of social organization was the clan and the family.

Societies of hunters and gatherers were small (up to fifty people) and led a nomadic lifestyle, moving from place to place as the food supply in a given territory was reduced.

These societies were egalitarian in nature; there was no social class stratification, state, law, etc.

Pastoral and horticultural societies emerged about 10-12 thousand years ago as two directions of progressive development and overcoming the past state. The domestication of animals and plants can be called the first social revolution. Food surpluses began to appear, which allowed social groups to come to a social division of labor that stimulated trade, and hence the accumulation of wealth.

All this was a prerequisite for the emergence of social inequality in society.

Agrarian societies appeared about 5-6 thousand years ago, when the second social revolution took place, associated with the invention of the plow.

These societies were based on extensive agriculture using draft animals.

Agricultural surpluses have become so large that they have led to an intensive increase in social inequality. The concentration of resources and power led to the emergence of the state and law.

Sometimes an agrarian society is called traditional, referring to pre-capitalist, pre-industrial society.

According to K. Saint-Simon, such a society is characterized by the following features: an agrarian way of life, a sedentary social structure, tradition as the main way of social regulation, etc. Traditional societies in history have a different social class structure. They may be poorly differentiated, estate, class, etc., but all are based on similar property relations (there is no indivisible private property), there is no individual freedom in them.

Sometimes a traditional society is designated as pre-industrial, then a three-term model of the development of society is built: pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial society (D. Bell, A. Touraine, etc.).

Industrial societies emerged as a result of the third social revolution (industrial), which began with the invention and use of the steam engine. A new source of energy (1765

- the first use of a steam engine) led to the replacement of the brute force of a person or animal by the power of a machine. Industrialization and urbanization began.

An industrial society is characterized by such features as a developed industrial production, a flexible social structure, social mobility, democracy, etc.

Post-industrial societies emerge at the end of the 20th century. based on the information revolution.

New information and telecommunication technologies are becoming the technological basis for a new structure of production and services. Service industries (education, health care, management, scientific research, etc.) become dominant compared to agriculture and industrial production.

This typology of societies has something in common with other typologies, but it emphasizes the trends in the development of modern society.

The pre-industrial society is dominated by agriculture, the church and the army; in an industrial society, industry, firms and corporations. In a post-industrial society, the production of knowledge becomes the main sphere of production. Here we have the information basis of society, the new elite (technocracy). Universities are starting to take over. Property as a criterion of social stratification loses its significance and gives way to knowledge and education.

There is a transition from a commodity-producing economy to a service economy (the superiority of the service sector over the production sector). For example, in tsarist Russia, agriculture accounted for 97%, while in modern Sweden it is only 7%.

The social composition and social structure of society is changing: class division gives way to professional, generational and other forms of stratification.

Planning and control over technical changes is introduced. Social technologies are developing widely. The main social contradiction in such societies is not between labor and capital, but between knowledge and incompetence.

There is also a division of societies into "closed" and "open"(classified by K.

Popper). This division of societies is carried out according to the ratio of social control and freedom of the individual. A “closed society” is a dogmatic, authoritarian, rigid society.

An "open society" is a democratic, pluralistic, and easily changing society. It is characterized by individualism and criticism.

Issues for discussion and discussion

1. How do social space and social time differ from physical space and time?

Expand the functions of social time.

2. Expand the concept, describe the structure and classify social processes.

3. Describe the main sources and main results of social change.

4. Compare social revolution and social reforms, highlight common and special features.

Ways of development of society is an evolutionary, revolutionary and reforming way. Let's consider each of them.

Evolution - it is (from the Latin evolutio - “deployment”) the process of natural change in society, in which a social form of development of society arises, which differs from the previous one. The evolutionary path of development is smooth, gradual changes that occur in society in specific historical conditions.

For the first time a sociologist spoke about social evolution Spencer g.

The modern Russian historian highly appreciated the evolutionary path of development Volobuev P. He named positive aspects of evolution:

• Ensures the continuity of development, preserving all the accumulated wealth
• It is accompanied by positive qualitative changes, and in all spheres of society.
• Evolution uses reforms, is able to provide and support social progress, to give it a civilized form.

The revolution- (from Latin revolutio - turn, transformation) these are fundamental, spasmodic, significant changes in society that lead to the transition of society from one qualitative state to another.

Types of revolutions

By run time:

• Short-term (for example, the February Revolution in Russia in 1917)
• Long-term (for example, the Neolithic, that is, the transition from an appropriating to a producing type of economy, lasted about 3 thousand years; the industrial revolution, that is, the transition from manual labor to machine labor, lasted about 200 years, this is 18-19 centuries).

By areas of flow

• technical (Neolithic, industrial, scientific and technical)
• cultural
• social (with change of power)

According to the scale of flow:

• in a separate country
• in a number of countries
• global

Assessments of social revolutions

K. Marx:“Revolution is the locomotive of history”, “the driving force of society”

Berdyaev N.: “All revolutions ended in reactions. It's inevitable. This is the law. And the more violent and furious the revolutions were, the stronger were the reactions.

Most sociologists see revolution as an undesirable deviation from the natural course of history, because any revolution is always violence, death of people, impoverishment of people.

Reform- (from lat. reformo transformation) is a change in society carried out from above by the government, power. This happens through the adoption of laws, regulations and other authoritative prescriptions. Reforms can take place in one area or in several at once. However, there are no significant, fundamental changes in the state (in the system, phenomenon, structure).

Types of reforms

Influence on the course of historical development

• progressive, that is, leading to improvement in any area of ​​society (reform of education, health care. Recall the reforms of Alexander II - peasant, zemstvo, judicial, military - all of them significantly improved social relations.
• Regressive - leading to a backward movement, worsening something in society. So the counter-reforms of Alexander III led to increased reaction, conservatism in management.

By area of ​​society:

• Economic(transformations in the economic activity of the country)
• Social(creation of conditions for a decent life for people)
• Political(changes in the political sphere, for example, the adoption of a constitution, a new electoral law, etc.)

New types of revolutions of the 20th and 21st centuries:

• "green" revolution - a set of changes in agriculture that occurred in developing countries in the 1940s-1970s of the 20th century. These include: introduction of more productive plant varieties; expansion of irrigation, that is, irrigation systems; improvement of agricultural machinery; the use of fertilizers, pesticides, i.e. chemicals to control pests and weeds . Target this revolution - a significant increase in agricultural production, access to the world market.
• "velvet" revolution is a process of bloodless reform of the social regime. For the first time the term arose in connection with the events in Czechoslovakia in November-December 1989. In these revolutions, the leading role is played by elite groups that compete with the same elite, but in power.
• "orange" revolution is a company of rallies, protests, strikes, pickets and other acts of civil disobedience, the purpose of which is to solve pressing problems. The term first appeared in connection with the events in Ukraine in 2004, when supporters of Yushchenko and Yanukovych opposed.

  Material prepared: Melnikova Vera Alexandrovna

In the history of sociology, a variety of mechanisms (models, forms) for the transformation of society have been presented. For example, G. Tarde formulated the law of imitation, according to which it is "imitation" that is the main mechanism of social transformations. However, the most commonly used terms to describe the mechanisms of transformation of society are the concepts of "revolution" and "reform" ("evolution").

Revolution (lat. - turn, coup) - a deep qualitative change in the development of any phenomena of nature, society or knowledge (geological revolution, industrial revolution, scientific and technological revolution, cultural revolution, etc.). A revolution means a break in gradualness, a qualitative leap in development. Revolution differs from evolution (the gradual development of a process), as well as from reforms. The concept of revolution is most widely used to characterize social development.

A social revolution is a way of moving from a historically obsolete era to a more progressive one; a radical qualitative revolution in the entire social structure of society. The question of the role of revolutions in social development is the subject of a sharp ideological struggle. Many representatives of the "sociology of revolution" argue that the revolution as a form of social development is inefficient and fruitless, associated with enormous costs and inferior to evolutionary forms of development in all respects. Representatives of Marxism, on the contrary, call social revolutions "the locomotive of history." They insist that social progress takes place only in revolutionary epochs. Thus, in Marxism the progressive role of social revolutions is emphasized in every possible way:

1) social revolutions resolve numerous contradictions that slowly accumulate during the period of evolutionary development, open up more scope for the progress of productive forces and society as a whole;

2) lead to a revolutionary emancipation of the forces of the people, raise the masses of the people to a new level of activity and development;

3) liberate the personality, stimulate its spiritual and moral development, increase the degree of its freedom;

4) they discard the obsolete, keep everything progressive from the old, thus social revolutions are a solid foundation for the successful progressive development of society.

In real development processes, evolution and revolution are equally necessary components and form a contradictory unity. When describing a social revolution, two most characteristic features stand out:

1) social revolution as a break in gradualness, as a qualitative transition to the next stage of development, as a manifestation of the creativity of the masses and revolutionary elites (the Marxist doctrine of social revolution as a qualitative leap in the transition of society to a higher stage of development);

2) social revolution as rapid and large-scale transformations in society (here the revolution is opposed to reforms).

In social life, the term "reform" is added to the concepts of evolution and revolution.

Reform (Latin - transformation) - change, reorganization of any aspect of social life, which does not destroy the foundations of the existing social structure. From a formal point of view, reform means innovation of any content, but in practice, reform is usually understood as a progressive transformation.

Social (public) progress. Most sociological theories of the 19th century were influenced by the concept of social progress. The idea that changes in the world occur in a certain direction arose in ancient times. At the same time, progress was opposed to regress - in the sense that the progressive movement is characterized as a transition from the lower to the higher, from the simple to the complex, from the less perfect to the more perfect. Attempts have been made to find the underlying laws of evolution. G. Spencer and other supporters of social Darwinism considered social evolution as an analogy of biological evolution. At the same time, evolution was interpreted as a unidirectional transition of society from homogeneous and simple structures to increasingly diverse and interdependent ones. Darwin's "struggle for existence" and "survival of the fittest" were considered the basic laws of the development of society. These laws of nature were likened to the laws of free competition.

So, social progress means the ascent to more complex forms of social life. As applied to the topic under discussion, this means the growth of progressive social changes: the improvement of living conditions, the development of science, technology and education, the emergence of more rights and freedoms, etc. However, it is difficult to talk about progress in relation to many social phenomena, since the development of some phenomena of social life is non-linear.

For example, within the framework of art, religion and some other social phenomena, the highest models of development were created already several centuries or even millennia ago. At the same time, with regard to such phenomena as engineering, technology, etc., one can quite unambiguously speak of constantly progressing phenomena. Therefore, social progress is spoken of as a trinity of several tendencies (progressiveness, regressivity, movement in a circle). Everything depends on which of these tendencies (as applied to a particular social phenomenon) prevails. Evaluation of progressivity or regressivity of a phenomenon should be based on objective indicators. This raises the question of the criteria for progress. For example, in Marxism, the level of development of the productive forces and the nature of production relations were taken as a general historical criterion for the progressive development of mankind. In technocratic theories, the level of development of society is measured by the criterion of the development of technology and technology. In a number of other social teachings, the level of development of human thinking, morality in society, religiosity, etc., serve as criteria.

In sociology, several common concepts are used to characterize the development of society.

Modernization. There are several definitions of modernization: dichotomous (modernization as a transition from one state of society - traditional - to another - industrial). Historical (description of the processes through which modernization is carried out: transformations, revolutions, etc.). Instrumental (modernization as a transformation of tools and methods of development and control over the natural and social environment). Mental (definition through a mental shift - a special state of mind, which is characterized by faith in progress, a tendency to economic growth, a willingness to adapt to change). Civilizational (civilization as modernity, i.e. modernization as the spread of a given civilization).

As elements modernization, the following processes are distinguished: industrialization, urbanization, bureaucratization, nation building, commercialization, professionalization, secularization, literacy and mass media, the growth of social and professional mobility, etc.

Modernization acts primarily as the industrialization of society. Historically, the emergence of modern societies is closely linked with the emergence of industry. All characteristics associated with the concept of modernity (modernity) can be correlated with the industrial type of society. Modernization is a continuous and endless process. It can take place over centuries, or it can happen quickly. Since the development of different societies is characterized by irregularity and unevenness, there are always developed and lagging regions. With modernization and industrialization, a noticeable transformation of the respective societies takes place (the types and nature of the social groups included in them are transformed, etc.). Thus, during the transition to a bourgeois society, the former class organization of society gave way to a social class structure, and earlier, consanguineous primitive communities were replaced by castes and slavery. Bureaucratization is the formation of a hierarchical social structure for managing organizations on the principles of rationality, qualification, efficiency and impersonality.

Urbanization is the process of moving the rural population to cities and the concomitant concentration of economic activity, administrative and political institutions, and communication networks in urban areas. Urbanization is closely related to the decline in the share of the agricultural sector and the wide spread of industry.

In the history of sociology, several typologies of the historical development of society have developed:

a) two-tier: from pre-civilizational to civilizational form of hostel;

b) three-tier: agrarian society - industrial society - post-industrial society;

c) four-link: agrarian society - industrial society - post-industrial society - information (network) society;

d) five-link (Marxist typology): primitive communal society - slave society - feudal society - bourgeois society - communist society. The five-link typology is based on the doctrine of socio-economic

formations. A socio-economic formation is a set of production relations determined by the level of development of the productive forces and determining superstructural phenomena.

Socio-economic formation

Characteristic

Primitive communal. Low level of development of productive forces, primitive forms of labor organization, lack of private property. Social equality and personal freedom. Absence of public power isolated from society.

slaveholding. Private ownership of the means of production, including "talking tools" (slaves). Social inequality and class stratification (slaves and slave owners). The state and the legal regulation of public life appear. Non-economic coercion prevails.

feudal. Large landed property of the feudal lords. The labor of free, but economically (rarely politically) dependent peasants from the feudal lords. The main classes are feudal lords and peasants. Non-economic coercion is supplemented by economic labor incentives.

Capitalist. Highly developed productive forces. The main role of industry in the economy. The class structure of society is based on the relationship between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Private ownership of the main means of production. Personal freedom of workers, economic coercion. Formal equality of citizens.

Communist. No private ownership of the means of production. State (public) ownership of the means of production. Lack of exploitative classes. A fair and even distribution of the produced product among all members of society. High level of development of productive forces and high organization of labor. The withering away of the state and law.

All these typologies have a common feature - they recognize the steady and progressive nature of the development of society from one stage to another.

Usually, the analysis of the evolution of societies begins with a description of the society of hunters and gatherers. , where the main unit of social organization was the clan and the family. Societies of hunters and gatherers were small (up to fifty people) and led a nomadic lifestyle, moving from place to place as the food supply in a given territory was reduced. These societies were egalitarian in nature; there was no social class stratification, state, law, etc.

Pastoral and horticultural societies emerged about 10-12 thousand years ago as two directions of progressive development and overcoming the past state. The domestication of animals and plants can be called the first social revolution. Food surpluses began to appear, which allowed social groups to come to a social division of labor that stimulated trade, and hence the accumulation of wealth. All this was a prerequisite for the emergence of social inequality in society.

Agrarian societies appeared about 5-6 thousand years ago, when the second social revolution took place, associated with the invention of the plow.

These societies were based on extensive agriculture using draft animals. Agricultural surpluses have become so large that they have led to an intensive increase in social inequality. The concentration of resources and power led to the emergence of the state and law.

Sometimes an agrarian society is called traditional, referring to pre-capitalist, pre-industrial society. According to K. Saint-Simon, such a society is characterized by the following features: an agrarian way of life, a sedentary social structure, tradition as the main way of social regulation, etc. Traditional societies in history have a different social class structure. They may be poorly differentiated, estate, class, etc., but all are based on similar property relations (there is no indivisible private property), there is no individual freedom in them. Sometimes a traditional society is designated as pre-industrial, then a three-term model of the development of society is built: pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial society (D. Bell, A. Touraine, etc.).

Industrial societies emerged as a result of the third social revolution (industrial), which began with the invention and use of the steam engine. A new source of energy (1765 - the first use of a steam engine) led to the replacement of brute human or animal power by machine power. Industrialization and urbanization began.

An industrial society is characterized by such features as a developed industrial production, a flexible social structure, social mobility, democracy, etc.

Post-industrial societies emerge at the end of the 20th century. based on the information revolution. New information and telecommunication technologies are becoming the technological basis for a new structure of production and services. Service industries (education, health care, management, scientific research, etc.) become dominant compared to agriculture and industrial production.

This typology of societies has something in common with other typologies, but it emphasizes the trends in the development of modern society. The pre-industrial society is dominated by agriculture, the church and the army; in an industrial society - industry, firms and corporations. In a post-industrial society, the production of knowledge becomes the main sphere of production. Here we have the information basis of society, the new elite (technocracy). Universities are starting to take over. Property as a criterion of social stratification loses its significance and gives way to knowledge and education. There is a transition from a commodity-producing economy to a service economy (the superiority of the service sector over the production sector). For example, in tsarist Russia, agriculture accounted for 97%, while in modern Sweden it is only 7%.

The social composition and social structure of society is changing: class division gives way to professional, generational and other forms of stratification. Planning and control over technical changes is introduced. Social technologies are developing widely. The main social contradiction in such societies is not between labor and capital, but between knowledge and incompetence.

There is also a division of societies into "closed" and "open"(K. Popper's classification). This division of societies is carried out according to the ratio of social control and freedom of the individual. A “closed society” is a dogmatic, authoritarian, rigid society.

An "open society" is a democratic, pluralistic, and easily changing society. It is characterized by individualism and criticism.

Issues for discussion and discussion

1. How do social space and social time differ from physical space and time? Expand the functions of social time.

2. Expand the concept, describe the structure and classify social processes.

3. Describe the main sources and main results of social change.

4. Compare social revolution and social reforms, highlight common and special features.