Structure of the components of the biosphere. Functional structure of the biosphere

The long period of pre-biological development of our planet, determined by the action of physico-chemical factors of inanimate nature, ended with a qualitative leap - the emergence of organic life. Since their appearance, organisms exist and develop in close interaction with inanimate nature, and processes in living nature on the surface of our planet have become predominant. Under the influence of solar energy, a fundamentally new (planetary scale) system is developing - biosphere. The biosphere consists of:

♦ living matter formed by a collection of organisms;

♦ a biogenic substance that is created during the life of organisms (atmospheric gases, coal, limestone, etc.);

♦ inert matter, formed without the participation of living organisms (basic rocks, volcanic lava, meteorites);

♦ bioinert substance, which is a joint result of the vital activity of organisms and abiogenic processes (soil).

The evolution of the biosphere is determined by closely interrelated three groups of factors: the development of our planet as a cosmic body and the chemical transformations occurring in its depths, the biological evolution of living organisms and the development of human society.

The boundaries of life are determined by factors in the earth's environment that prevent the existence of living organisms. The upper boundary of the biosphere passes at an altitude of about 20 km from the Earth's surface and is delimited by the ozone layer, which blocks the short-wave part of the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, which is destructive to life. In the hydrosphere of the earth's crust, living organisms inhabit all the waters of the World Ocean - up to 10–11 km in depth. In the lithosphere, life occurs at a depth of 3.5–7.5 km, which is determined by the temperature of the earth’s interior and the level of penetration of liquid water.

Atmosphere. The gas envelope of the Earth consists mainly of nitrogen and oxygen. It contains small amounts of carbon dioxide (0.003%) and ozone. The state of the atmosphere has a great influence on physical, chemical and biological processes on the Earth's surface and in the aquatic environment. The following are especially important for life processes: oxygen, used for respiration and mineralization of dead organic matter; carbon dioxide, used by green plants in photosynthesis; ozone, creating a screen that protects the earth's surface from ultraviolet radiation. The atmosphere was formed as a result of powerful volcanic and mountain-building activity; oxygen appeared much later as a product of photosynthesis.

Hydrosphere. Water is an important component of the biosphere and a necessary condition for the existence of living organisms. Gases dissolved in water are of great importance: oxygen and carbon dioxide. Their content varies widely depending on temperature and the presence of living organisms. Water contains 60 times more carbon dioxide than the atmosphere. The hydrosphere was formed in connection with the development of geological processes in the lithosphere, during which large amounts of water vapor were released.

Lithosphere. The bulk of lithosphere organisms are found in the soil layer, the depth of which does not exceed several meters. The soil consists of inorganic substances (sand, clay, mineral salts) formed during the destruction of rocks, and organic substances - waste products of organisms.

The main components of the biosphere are: living, inert, bioinert and biogenic matter.

Living matter is the most important component of the biosphere.

Living matter- the totality of all living organisms on Earth with their ability to reproduce and spread on the planet, to fight for food, water, territory, air.

Living matter (by mass) accounts for an insignificant share compared to the mass of the Earth. Living matter is characterized by growth, active movement, and the desire to fill the entire surrounding space. In addition, living matter is characterized by an amazing variety of shapes, sizes and chemical compositions and, of course, evolution.

Inert substance represented by minerals (diamond, emerald, quartz) and rocks (granite, marble). Their formation occurred and occurs without the participation of living matter. These processes are associated, for example, with the weathering of rocks, their mechanical destruction, and volcanic eruptions. There is an inextricable relationship between inert and living matter. For example, it is carried out in the process of respiration of living matter. In this case, atoms move from inert components of the biosphere to living ones and back. The mass of inert matter in the biosphere is many times greater than the mass of living matter.

Bioinert substance is a special substance of the biosphere. It is represented by soil, all natural waters, and weathering crust. This substance is the result of the continuous interaction of living matter with inert matter.

A manifestation of the activity of living matter in transforming the earth's crust is its participation in the creation of sedimentary rocks of organic origin (coal, various ores, limestones, oil). The result of this work was named by V.I. Vernadsky nutrient biosphere. A biogenic substance comes from a living substance as a result of its vital activity or death. This is how deposits of many minerals were created on planet Earth: peat, oil, coal, etc.

Biomass of land surface, oceans, soil

Biomass is the total mass of animals, plants and microorganisms present in the biosphere. The total biological mass of the Earth is estimated at approximately 2420 billion tons. The biomasses of living matter (green plants, animals and microorganisms) on continental land and in the World Ocean differ significantly:

As can be seen from the table, the largest mass of living organisms in the biosphere is concentrated on the continents (more than 98.7%). The contribution of the oceanic part to the total biomass is small (about 0.13%). On land, the living matter of plants significantly predominates (more than 99%), in the ocean - animals (more than 93%). At the same time, when comparing their absolute values: 2,400 billion tons of plants and 3 billion tons of animals, it is clear that the living matter on the planet is overwhelmingly represented by terrestrial green plants. The biomass of heterotrophic organisms is only about 1%.

Land biomass increases from the poles to the equator. The greatest biomass of living matter on land is concentrated in tropical forests. They are the most productive communities of the continental biosphere.

The world's oceans occupy more than 2/3 of the planet's surface. The biomass in it is unevenly distributed and is represented mainly in the upper part by plankton. The biomass of terrestrial plants is 1000 times greater than the total mass of oceanic living organisms. At the same time, it is the World Ocean that is considered the most productive environment for the creation of biomass. This is due to the intensive reproduction rate of microscopic representatives of phyto- and zooplankton, their rapid growth and short life expectancy. Therefore, the total volume of primary annual production generated by the producers of the World Ocean is comparable to the volume of production of land plants.

Soil as a habitat is characterized by its own biomass, since it is closely related to the life activity of many organisms. Soil biomass- a set of living organisms that live in the soil and play a leading role in the process of its formation. There are many microorganisms, protists, and worms in the soil that decompose organic matter. Green algae and cyanobacteria live in the surface layers, supplying the soil with oxygen through the process of photosynthesis. In addition, the soil is inhabited by ants, mites, moles, marmots, gophers, etc. All of them carry out great soil-forming work, creating soil fertility, and after death they become a source of organic matter for bacteria. Soil biomass, like plant biomass, tends to increase from the poles to the equator.

Biogeochemical functions of living matter

The following most important functions of living matter on the planet are distinguished: energy, gas, concentration, redox.

Energy function. Energy is a necessary condition for the existence and development of the biosphere. The energy function is realized primarily by green plants. The main supplier of energy to the biosphere is the Sun. As you already know, plants, during the process of photosynthesis, accumulate solar energy in the chemical bonds of various organic compounds. After this, plant organisms redistribute it between all components of the biosphere. Note that of all solar energy entering the biosphere, only about 1% is used by producers for photosynthesis and is then transferred to consumers as part of organic matter. The rest is absorbed by the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, and also participates in physical and chemical processes occurring in the biosphere, for example: the movement of air masses, weathering of rocks, etc.

Gas function consists in the constantly occurring gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between living organisms and the environment in the process of photosynthesis and respiration. Gases such as nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, methane can also be waste products of living organisms and have biogenic origin. Thanks to living organisms, a constant gas composition is maintained in the atmosphere of our planet.

Redox function lies in the variety of chemical reactions occurring in the body during its life. It is due to the presence in living organisms of chemical elements with variable oxidation states (manganese, iron, chromium). Thanks to them, the diversity of redox processes occurring in the body is ensured. In the process of synthesis of organic substances, reduction reactions predominate and energy is consumed. And in the process of oxidation and decomposition in the presence of oxygen, oxidative reactions with the release of energy predominate. Thus, life in the biosphere is a continuous synthesis and disintegration of organic substances that unite all living organisms on Earth.

Concentration function- selective accumulation by living matter of chemical elements dispersed in the environment. For example, the shells of diatoms, animal skeletons, and mollusk shells are all manifestations of the concentration function of living matter. The formation of biogenic matter in the biosphere in the form of mineral deposits is also the result of the concentration function of living matter.

The main components of the biosphere are: living, inert, bioinert and biogenic matter. The largest mass of living organisms is concentrated on the continents, and the biomass of land producers significantly predominates. In the oceanic part of the biosphere, consumers exceed producers in biomass. Living organisms on the planet in the process of life perform energy, gas, redox, and concentration functions.

In 1875, the term “biosphere” appeared in the scientific literature. It was proposed by Eduard Suess (1831-1914), a famous Austrian geologist. Having introduced a new term into science, E. Suess did not give it a definition, so the word “biosphere” began to be used occasionally in geological and geographical literature, each time with a different meaning.

In 1926, the book “Biosphere” by the outstanding Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky was published in Leningrad. This book is the first to give an idea of the Earth's biosphere as a planetary shell, filled, transformed and constantly transformed by organisms. V.I. Vernadsky extended the concept of “biosphere” not only to organisms, but also to the habitat. Emphasizing the geological role of living organisms, Vernadsky wrote: “There is no chemical force on the earth’s surface that is more constantly active, and therefore more powerful in its final consequences, than living organisms taken as a whole.”

9.1. Biosphere, its structure and functions

♦ living matter formed by a collection of organisms;

♦ a biogenic substance that is created during the life of organisms (atmospheric gases, coal, limestone, etc.);

♦ inert matter, formed without the participation of living organisms (basic rocks, volcanic lava, meteorites);

♦ bioinert substance, which is a joint result of the vital activity of organisms and abiogenic processes (soil).

The boundaries of life are determined by factors in the earth's environment that prevent the existence of living organisms. The upper boundary of the biosphere passes at an altitude of about 20 km from the Earth's surface and is delimited by the ozone layer, which blocks the short-wave part of the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, which is destructive to life. In the hydrosphere of the earth's crust, living organisms inhabit all the waters of the World Ocean - up to 10-11 km in depth. In the lithosphere, life is found at a depth of 3.5-7.5 km, which is determined by the temperature of the earth’s interior and the level of penetration of liquid water.

9.2. Living matter as a system-forming factor of the biosphere

The enormous merit of V.I. Vernadsky is the substantiation of the new content of ideas about living matter. Vernadsky called living matter “a set of organisms reduced to their weight, chemical composition and energy.” Living matter in its mass represents an insignificant part of the biosphere. If all the living matter of the Earth is evenly distributed over its surface, then it will cover our planet with a layer 2 cm thick. However, it is living matter, according to V.I. Vernadsky, that performs leading functions in the formation of the earth’s crust.

Living matter has a number of specific properties:

1. Living matter is characterized by enormous free energy.

2. In living matter, chemical reactions proceed thousands (sometimes millions) times faster than in nonliving matter. Therefore, to characterize changes in living matter, they use the concept historical, and in inert matter - geological time.

3. Chemical compounds that make up living matter (enzymes, proteins, etc.) are stable only in living organisms.

4. Living matter is characterized by voluntary movement - passive, due to growth and reproduction, and active - in the form of directed movement of organisms. The first is a property of all living organisms, the second is characteristic of animals and, in rare cases, of plants.

5. Living matter is characterized by much greater chemical and morphological diversity than nonliving matter.

6. Living matter in the Earth's biosphere is found in the form of dispersed bodies - individual organisms. The size and mass of living organisms fluctuate greatly (range greater than 10 9).

7. Living matter arises only from living matter and exists on Earth in the form of a continuous alternation of generations.

Living organisms within the biosphere are distributed very unevenly. At high altitudes and depths of the hydrosphere and lithosphere, organisms are quite rare. Life is concentrated mainly on the surface of the earth, in the soil and the surface layer of the World Ocean.

V.I. Vernadsky identified two forms of concentration of living matter: life films, occupying huge areas, and condensations of life, represented by small areas (for example, a pond). The rest of the biosphere is zone of discharge of living matter.

In the ocean, two films of life can be distinguished - planktonic And bottom, which are located at the phase interface. Planktonic lies on the boundary of the atmosphere and hydrosphere, bottom - on the boundary of the hydrosphere and lithosphere. Concentrations of life in the ocean are divided into three types: coastal, sargassum and reef.

On land there are also various forms of concentration of life. The upper layer of life on land is terrestrial, located at the boundary of the atmosphere and lithosphere. Beneath it lies the soil film of life, which is a complex system inhabited by a huge number of bacteria, protozoa and other representatives of living organisms.

Condensations of life are represented on land by coastal, floodplain and tropical forms.

An important pattern is observed in the ratio of the species composition of living organisms on Earth. Plants make up 21% of the total number of species, forming 99% of the total biomass. Among animals, 96% of species are invertebrates and only 4% are vertebrates, of which only 10% are mammals.

Thus, organisms at a relatively low level of evolutionary development significantly predominate quantitatively.

The mass of living matter is very small compared to the mass of nonliving matter and amounts to only 0.01-0.02% of the inert matter of the biosphere. At the same time, living matter plays a dominant role in geochemical processes. Every year, thanks to the vital activity of plants and animals, about 10% of the biomass is reproduced.

Living matter in the biosphere performs important functions:

1. Energy function - absorption of solar energy and energy during chemosynthesis, further transfer of energy along the food chain.

2. Concentration function - selective accumulation of certain chemicals.

3. Environment-forming function - transformation of physical and chemical parameters of the environment.

4. Transport function - transfer of substances in vertical and horizontal directions.

5. Destructive function - mineralization of non-biogenic matter, decomposition of non-living inorganic matter.

Living organisms migrate chemical elements in the biosphere in the process of respiration, nutrition, metabolism and energy.

The main function of the biosphere is to ensure the circulation of chemical elements, which is expressed in the circulation of substances between the atmosphere, soil, hydrosphere and living organisms.

9.3. Biosphere - ecosystem on a planetary scale

In the conditions of scientific and technological progress, humanity is increasingly coming into conflict with nature. Active human activity not only significantly changes not only the appearance of our planet, but also affects the nature of processes in the biosphere. Human activity leads to disruption of the biotic cycle of substances, depletion of natural resources, disruption of thermodynamic equilibrium, etc. Further deepening of this conflict can lead to a global catastrophe that threatens the death of all life on the planet, including humans. In this regard, the relationship between man and his environment and his place in nature must be radically reconsidered. The existence and development of humanity must be commensurate with the laws of development of the biosphere.

The biotic cycle of organic substances is the basis and condition for the existence of the biosphere. Its continuity is the key to the development and very existence of life on Earth. Each species is a link in the biotic cycle. The continuity of life is ensured by the processes of synthesis and decay. Solar energy entering the biosphere is partially spent on the synthesis of high-molecular energy-rich organic matter. As energy is transferred from one trophic level to another, it gradually dissipates. A special role in the cycle belongs to microorganisms, which transform the dead remains of plants and animals into inorganic substances, which are subsequently used by green plants for photosynthesis. The renewal of all living matter in the Earth's biosphere occurs in approximately 8 years. The matter of terrestrial plants is renewed in 14 years, and the entire biomass of the ocean - in 33 days.

V.I. Vernadsky considered the biotic cycle as the basis for the organization of life on a planetary scale.

9.4. Principles of the structure of the biosphere

So, the biosphere is the totality of all living organisms along with their habitat. Habitats include water, the lower atmosphere, and the upper crust. Living and nonliving substances of the biosphere are in continuous interaction and unity, forming an integral system. V. I. Vernadsky’s many years of work on the problems of the interaction of living matter and geochemical processes on Earth was completed by the creation of the doctrine of the biosphere, the main provisions of which are the following.

1. The integrity of the biosphere is determined by the self-consistency of all processes in the biosphere, limited by physical constants, radiation levels, etc.

2. Earthly laws of atomic movement and energy transformation are a reflection of the harmony of the cosmos, ensuring the harmony and organization of the biosphere. The sun, as the main source of energy in the biosphere, regulates life processes on Earth.

3. Since ancient geological times, living matter in the biosphere has been actively transforming solar energy into the energy of chemical bonds of complex organic substances. At the same time, the essence of living things is constant, only the form of existence of living matter changes. Living matter itself is not a random creation, but is the result of the transformation of solar light energy into the actual energy of the Earth.

4. The smaller the organisms, the faster they reproduce. The rate of reproduction depends on the density of living matter. The spreading of life is the result of the manifestation of its geochemical energy.

5. Autotrophic organisms obtain all the substances necessary for life from the surrounding inert matter. For the life of heterotrophs, ready-made organic compounds are necessary. The distribution of photosynthetic organisms (autotrophs) is limited by the penetration of solar energy.

6. Active transformation of cosmic energy by living matter is accompanied by the desire for maximum expansion, the desire to fill all possible space. V.I. Vernadsky called this process “the pressure of life.”

7. The forms of occurrence of chemical elements are rocks, minerals, magma, trace elements and living matter. In the earth's crust, constant transformations of substances, cycles, and movement of atoms and molecules occur.

8. The distribution of life on our planet is determined by the field of sustainability of green plants. The maximum field of life is limited by the extreme limits of survival of organisms, which depends on the stability of the chemical compounds that make up living matter to certain environmental conditions.

9. The amount of living matter in the biosphere is constant and corresponds to the amount of gases in the atmosphere, primarily oxygen.

10. Every system reaches a stable equilibrium, at which the free energy of the system approaches zero.

The concept of biosphere evolution occupies a special place in the works of V.I. Vernadsky. He identifies three stages in the development of the biosphere. The first is the emergence of the primary biosphere with the biotic cycle of substances. The leading factors at this stage are geological and climatic changes on Earth. The second stage is the complication of the structure of the biosphere as a result of the emergence of unicellular and multicellular eukaryotic organisms. The driving factor is biological evolution. And finally, the third stage is the emergence of human society and the gradual transformation of the biosphere into the noosphere. The leading factor in this process is intelligent human activity, characterized by rational regulation of the relationship between man and nature.

9.5. Transformation of the biosphere into the noosphere

The modern biosphere has emerged as a result of a long evolutionary process of the living and inert matter of our planet. The role of man in the development of the biosphere is determined primarily by his biosocial nature. The existence of man as a heterotrophic organism depends on the availability of organic food, air, water, etc. At the same time, man has significant features that distinguish him from living nature - intelligence, the ability to work, creative activity, and production relations. In the early stages of human existence, his activities did not upset the balance in the biosphere. The natural resources consumed by humanity and the products of its vital activity circulated in the general cycle of substances, as well as the products of the activity of other species of living beings. Gradually, human activity became not just an adaptation to environmental conditions, but acquired a rational, purposeful character, changing the surrounding nature. Man has developed many new varieties of plants and animals, increasing the diversity of natural species, but at the same time, many species have disappeared or are on the verge of destruction (dodo, Steller's cow, passenger pigeon, etc.). Human activity is becoming a powerful environmental factor that disrupts the balance in nature and the biosphere. Human impacts on the environment have now reached planetary proportions. As a result of human activity, changes occur in climate, landscapes, atmospheric composition, species and numbers of living beings. Widespread destruction of forests leads to a decrease in the release of oxygen into the atmosphere and the utilization of carbon dioxide, soil erosion, climate change, and disruption of the water regime. The combustion of organic fuel reduces the oxygen content in the atmosphere (for example, when a car runs 100 km, the annual norm of oxygen for one person is consumed). In recent years, there has been an increase in the carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere and the accumulation of industrial dust. This leads to the emergence of the “greenhouse effect” - a disruption in the dissipation of heat from the Earth’s surface into space, which leads to a gradual warming of the planet’s climate. Millions of tons of pollutants enter the atmosphere every year. Particularly dangerous is sulfur dioxide, which combines with water vapor and causes acid rain. Everywhere on our planet there is a deterioration in the condition of water systems as a result of irrigation and reclamation measures. Groundwater is being depleted, small rivers are dying on a massive scale, large rivers are shrinking, large bodies of water are drying up (for example, the Aral Sea-Lake has disappeared from the face of the Earth). Human impact on the lithosphere is significant - plowing lands for agricultural needs (today 30% of the land is occupied by land) leads to soil erosion, salinization, and rising groundwater. Man creates technosphere, not forming an integral system with the biosphere, not creating new energy reserves. Human activity poses a threat to ecological balance and the existence of the biosphere.

The way out of the environmental crisis should be the creation on Earth noosphere. The concept of the noosphere was a logical result of the scientific work of V.I. Vernadsky, who said that “the biosphere will one day pass into the sphere of reason - the noosphere. A great unification will take place, as a result of which the development of the planet will be directed by the power of reason.” He wrote in most detail about the formation of the noosphere on Earth in his unfinished work “Scientific Thought as a Planetary Phenomenon.” Considering the transition of the biosphere to the noosphere (“sphere of the mind”), V. I. Vernadsky indicated a number of specific conditions necessary for the formation and existence of the noosphere. Need to:

♦ humanity became one, populating and transforming the entire planet;

♦ the means of communication and information exchange between countries have dramatically transformed - they have become mobile;

♦ ties, including political ones, between all countries of the Earth have strengthened;

♦ the boundaries of the biosphere expanded, space exploration took place;

♦ new energy sources were discovered and began to be actively used, the energy sector developed;

♦ real equality of people of all races and religions was established;

♦ a reasonable transformation of the primary nature of the Earth has been established in order to make it capable of satisfying all the material, aesthetic and spiritual needs of a numerically increasing population;

♦ wars were excluded from the life of society;

♦ there was an increase in the general standard of living, hunger and disease were defeated.

The noosphere is the highest stage of development of the biosphere, when transformative human activity is based on a scientific understanding of natural and social processes, taking into account the general laws of natural development. The noosphere cannot be formed spontaneously; its formation requires the conscious activity of people, the active intervention of the mind in the fate of nature. Changes in the biosphere should occur in the interests of humanity, but without damage to the biosphere itself. This relationship between man and the biosphere is called coevolution.

The structure of the noosphere includes the following components: humanity, the totality of scientific knowledge, the sum of equipment and technologies in unity with the biosphere.

The noosphere does not presuppose the survival of humanity, but the preservation of the ecosphere in harmony of living and inanimate nature, the conservation of nature with the preservation of the resource of the organic world in biogeocenoses.

The ideas of V. I. Vernadsky are reflected in modern concepts of sustainable development. Human civilization has reached a critical level, after which both a qualitatively new degree of development and a catastrophe are equally possible. Sustainable development involves both establishing a balance between the consumption and reproduction of natural resources, and ensuring sustainable growth in well-being, social security and the possibility of harmonious personal development. Sustainable development is a progressive movement of economic growth rates, in which pressure on the environment is compensated by restoring its properties. Noospheric transformations require from humanity the ability to rational thinking, scientific foresight, and the unity of ecology, economics and politics.

Self-test questions

1. What is the biosphere?

2. What is the structure of the biosphere?

3. Name the substances that make up the biosphere.

4. How are the boundaries of life determined?

5. What properties does living matter have?

6. Name the forms of concentration of living matter in the biosphere.

7. What is the cosmic role of the biosphere?

8. What is biogeocenosis?

9. Name the groups of organisms of biogeocenosis, united by trophic links.

10. What is coevolution?

Educational objectives: to acquaint students with the concept of “biosphere” as a giant ecological system of the globe, consider the structure of the biosphere, identify its functions, highlight the boundaries of the biosphere, the role of living matter in the biosphere.

Developmental tasks: continue to develop the skills to identify the main components of the biosphere, the ability to establish connections between the components of the biosphere, and draw conclusions.

Educational objectives: to continue patriotic education using the example of the life and work of V.I. Vernadsky, to instill in students a caring attitude towards nature, to reveal the activities of the government of our country to protect the natural environment.

Equipment: portrait of V.I. Vernadsky, table “Structure of the biosphere”, map “Fauna of the Earth”.

During the classes

1. Organizational moment.

Greetings;

Preparation for work;

Availability of students.

2. Motivation for learning activities.

Message of the topic, purpose of the lesson.

The relationship between the organism and the environment has always been of scientific interest, and is still relevant in our time.

3. Learning new things.

Subject: Structure of the biosphere.

1. Biosphere, its composition.

2. Structure of the biosphere.

3. Boundaries of the biosphere.

4. The role of living matter.

5. Homework message.

6. Summing up the lesson.

Assess the degree to which the goals have been achieved.

Evaluate students' work.

7. Consolidation of the studied material. Testing.

During the classes

1. Every living organism is connected with its environment by flows of matter and energy passing through its body. By consuming and releasing matter and energy, living organisms influence their environment. The results of the life activity of each individual creature may be small and inconspicuous. But all together they merge into a powerful force that transforms the earth's surface. The idea that living beings on our planet interact with the external environment and change it arose a long time ago on the basis of observations of natural phenomena.

The term itself "biosphere" proposed in 1875 by the Austrian geologist Edward Suess, who studied the geological shells of the planet Earth. However, he did not develop ideas about the biosphere and did not give a justification for the term.

The doctrine of the biosphere was created by the Russian scientist geochemist, philosopher, mineralogist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863-1945).

Student’s message “Biographical information about V.I. Vernadsky".

V.I. Vernadsky wrote many books. The first book was published in French, Geochemistry, in 1927. In our country, the book “Biosphere” was published in Leningrad in 1926. In 1927, V.I. Vernadsky opened a laboratory for the study of biogeochemical processes.

In 1949, he was awarded the 1st degree State Prize in the field of studying biochemical processes.

Do you remember when life appeared on Earth? (3 – 5 billion years ago).

What geographic envelopes make up the biosphere?

What is the limiting factor for the spread of life?

(Working with the textbook drawing on page 217).

(The limiting factor is the possibility of existence of conditions for living organisms).

Define the concept of “biogeocenosis”. (A set of populations of different species inhabiting a certain territory and inorganic components in which the circulation of substances can be maintained).

What structural components make up the biogeocenosis? (Producers, consumers, decomposers).

What properties do biogeocenoses have? (Integrity, stability, self-regulation).

Compare the two concepts “biogeocenosis” and “biosphere”. What conclusion can be drawn?

Conclusion: the biosphere is a gigantic biogeocenosis, which exists due to the close interconnection of all its structural components, and is an integral and stable system that has gone through a long path of historical development.

What are the boundaries of the biosphere? Show on the table. It is 20–40 km. Compare the thickness of the biosphere with the diameter of the Earth - 14 thousand km, it is a thin film.

Determine the limiting factors that determine the boundaries of life in the biosphere: the upper limit of the biosphere is limited by the intense concentration of ultraviolet rays; the lower one is due to the high temperature of the earth’s interior (over 100 degrees). At an altitude of 20 km, bacterial spores can be found, and at a depth of 3 km, anaerobic bacteria can be found in waters.

In what part of the atmosphere is life concentrated? - In the troposphere and lower stratosphere.

In what part of the hydrosphere is life concentrated? – Penetrates the entire depth of the World Ocean to a depth of 10-11 km.

In what part of the lithosphere is life concentrated? – Penetrates to depths of 3 – sometimes 7 km.

Living organisms, transforming solar energy, are a powerful force influencing geological processes. A specific feature of the biosphere as the shell of the Earth is the continuously occurring cycle of substances in it, regulated by the activity of living organisms. Since the biosphere receives energy from the outside - from the Sun, it is called open system.

The biosphere includes:

1)Living matter– “the totality of all living organisms on the planet that currently exist, numerically expressed in elementary chemical composition, weight, energy” (according to V.I. Vernadsky).

This substance is geochemically extremely active, because connected with the environment by the biogenic flow of atoms during the processes of respiration, nutrition, and reproduction. Thanks to this flow, almost all chemical elements pass through the biogeochemical link in the general chain of transformations. Thus, the life activity of organisms is a deep and powerful geological process planetary character. The migration of chemical elements from the body to the environment and back does not stop for a second. This migration would have been impossible if the elementary chemical composition of the organisms had not been close to the chemical composition of the earth's crust.

V.I. Vernadsky wrote: “An organism deals with an environment to which it is not only adapted, but which is adapted to it.”

Thanks to green chlorophyll-bearing plants, the process of photosynthesis is carried out; molecules of a complex structure with large reserves of energy contained in them are created in the biosphere. Without living matter, the work of a solar ray would be reduced only to moving gaseous, liquid and solid bodies across the surface of the planet and temporarily heating them. Living matter acts as battery and unique transformer bound radiant energy of the Sun. The capture of solar energy is carried out mainly by the plant world. But in retention And transformation all living matter takes part in its transfer along the earth's surface, as well as its transfer from the outer to the deeper layers of the planet. This process is carried out through the reproduction and subsequent growth of organisms. Reproduction rate their (according to V.I. Vernadsky) “is the rate of transmission of geochemical energy in the biosphere.” Elementary and structural unit The biosphere is a biogeocenosis. Living matter performs the following biogeochemical functions in the biosphere:

Energy;

Gas;

Redox;

Concentration.

Concentrator plants - sedge and horsetail - accumulation of silicon in tissues, cabbage and sorrel - sources of iodine and calcium.

Animal concentrators - in the skeleton and muscles of oceanic fish - calcium and phosphorus; mollusk shells contain calcium. Storage organisms suspend the migration of a number of elements for a long time, remove them from the circulation cycle, and deplete living matter.

Conclusion: living organisms living on Earth represent a complex system for converting the energy of solar rays into the energy of geochemical processes.

Living organisms, regulating the cycle of substances, serve as a powerful factor transforming the surface of our planet.

2) Nutrient– it is created in the process of vital activity of organisms (natural gas, oil, sapropel, coal and brown coal, peat, chalk, limestone, oil shale, iron and manganese ores).

3)Inert substance– it is formed without the participation of living organisms (the results of the movement of the earth’s crust, the activity of volcanoes, meteorites).

4) Bioinert substance– it is a joint result of the vital activity of organisms and non-biological processes (soil).

Although the boundaries of the biosphere are quite narrow, living organisms within them are distributed very unevenly. At high altitudes and in the depths of the hydrosphere and lithosphere, organisms are relatively rare. Life is concentrated mainly on the surface of the earth, in the soil and in the near-surface layer of the ocean.

Biomass of living organisms sushi is represented by 99.2% green plants, and 0.8% animals and microorganisms. Biomass ocean is as follows: the share of plants is 6.3%, the share of animals is 93.7%. The amount of biomass for the entire planet is 3 – 1012 tons, with plants accounting for 95% and animals for 5%. In general, biomass makes up only 0.01% of the mass of the entire biosphere.

By weight, the proportion of living matter is 0.01 - 0.02% of the mass of inert matter.

Working with the textbook: read the text on page 219. Answer the question: What contribution do plants make to biomass, and what contribution do animals make?

List the levels of organization of living matter and give them a brief description. Levels of organization: molecular, cellular, tissue, organ, organismal, population-species, biogenocenotic, biosphere.

5. Summing up the lesson, evaluating answers.

The doctrine of the biosphere is an important achievement of mankind. For the first time, living nature was taken as a whole and examined from the perspective of its total value and the effect it produces on the environment. The biosphere is the general planetary shell, the composition, structure, and energy of which is determined by the past and present activities of living matter. The living matter of the biosphere, performing geochemical functions (gas, concentration, energy, redox), creates and maintains the components of the biosphere.

6. Consolidation.

Select from the proposed judgments those that you consider correct:

The biosphere is the totality of all biogeocenoses.
The biosphere is an open system.
Living matter in the biosphere performs biogeochemical and concentration functions.
The highest level of organization of life on Earth is biogeocenotic.
The lower boundary of the habitat of living creatures lies in the lithosphere at a depth of 2–3 km.
Living organisms, regulating the cycle of substances, serve as a powerful geological factor that transforms the surface of our planet.
All oxygen in the atmosphere is formed as a result of the vital activity of autotrophic organisms.

Used Books

S.G.Mamontov, V.B.Zakharov. General biology. Textbook for secondary specialized educational institutions. – M., Higher School, 1986, pp. 224-227.
S.G.Mamontov, V.B.Zakharov, N.I.Sonin. Biology. General patterns. 9th grade. Textbook for general education institutions - M., Bustard, 2003, pp. 216-221.
Nigen Green, Wilf Stout, Denny and Taylor. Biology in three volumes, edited by R. Soper. Publishing house “Mir”, 1993, volume 2, pp. 79-81.
V.N.Gutina. Once again about the teachings of V.I. Vernadsky. Biology at school. 1997, no. 3, pp. 13-16.
V.S. Chesnokov. Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky. Biology at school. 2004, no. 3, pp. 19-22.

Biosphere, according to the teachings of Academician V.I. Vernadsky, is the outer shell of the Earth, including all living matter and the area of its distribution (habitat). The upper limit of the biosphere is the protective ozone layer in the atmosphere at an altitude of 20-25 km, above which life is impossible due to exposure to ultraviolet radiation. The lower boundary of the biosphere is: the lithosphere to a depth of 3-5 km and the hydrosphere to a depth of 11-12 km (Fig. 1.3).

Ris 1.3. The structure of the biosphere (according to V.I. Vernadsky)

The components of the biosphere: atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere - perform the most important functions to ensure life on Earth.

The biosphere arose about 4.5 billion years ago and went through several stages of evolutionary development: from the initial cycle of organic matter to the biological cycle - the continuous exchange of matter and energy between living organisms and the environment throughout the life of the organisms and after their death.

The most important components of the biosphere are:

Living matter (plants, animals, microorganisms);

Biogenic substance of organic origin (coal, peat, soil humus, oil, chalk, limestone, etc.);

Inert matter (rocks of inorganic origin);

Bioinert substance (products of decay and processing of rocks by living organisms).

According to V.I. Vernadsky, living matter is the carrier of the free energy of the biosphere and is connected with non-living matter by biogenic migration of atoms. The biomass of dry matter of living organisms on the Earth, including about 500 thousand species of plants and 1.5 million species of animals, is extremely large and amounts to approximately 2.4232 * 10 12 tons. The annual increase in living matter on Earth is about 8.8 * 10 11 tons. A large number of elements of the upper part of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere passed through these living organisms.

Important in the relationships between organisms is food— trophic factor(from Greek trophe- food). Primary organic matter is created by green plants (producers - manufacturers) using solar energy. They consume carbon dioxide, water, salts and release oxygen.

Consumers (consumers) can be divided into two orders:

I - organisms that feed on plant foods;

II - organisms that feed on animal food.

Decomposers(reducing agents) - organisms that feed on decaying organisms, bacteria and fungi. Here the role of microorganisms is especially great, completely destroying organic residues and converting them into final products (mineral salts, carbon dioxide, water, simple organic substances) that enter the soil and are re-consumed by plants.

All animals and plants are selective in the composition of food, depending on the need for certain mineral elements. Animals and plants are necessary environmental factors in relation to other animals and plants; they are mutually necessary.

Any organism is adapted to exist within fairly narrow limits of change in environmental conditions, and the departure of environmental parameters beyond the established boundaries entails suppression of the vital activity of a given species or its death. The boundaries of the distribution of an organism (area) are determined by compliance with the necessary requirements of the given organism to the conditions (factors) of the environment. Each species occupies a place determined by its requirements for territory, food, reproduction and other body functions. This set of environmental parameters for a species’ habitat, the place it occupies in the biosphere, is called ecological niche. All factors in an ecological niche are interconnected: a change in one of them entails a change in the others.

The ability of living organisms to adapt to environmental factors is characterized by ecological valency, or plasticity.

Living organisms are in constant interaction with the environment, consisting of many phenomena, conditions, elements that change in time and space, called environmental environmental factors. These are any environmental conditions that have a long-term or short-term effect on living organisms that respond to these influences with adaptive reactions. They are divided into abiotic(factors of inanimate nature) and biotic(factors of living nature). The currently accepted version of the classification of environmental environmental factors is presented in table 1.2.

Table 1.2
Classification of environmental environmental factors

Abiotic	Biotic
Climatic: light, temperature, moisture, air movement, pressure	Phytogenic: plant organisms
Edafogenic ("edaphos" - soil): mechanical composition, moisture capacity, air permeability, density	Zoogenic: animals
Orographic: relief, altitude, slope exposure	Microbiogenic: viruses, protozoa, bacteria, rickettsia
Chemical: gas composition of air, salt composition of water, concentration, acidity and composition of soil solutions	Anthropogenic: human activities (including construction)

The characteristics of the main abiotic factors that must be taken into account when restoring architectural monuments are given in Appendix 1.1. This is the composition of the atmosphere; the ratio of points on the 12-point seismic scale with the magnitude of earthquakes; seismic scale; wind force scale.

Biotic environmental factors determine the relationships between organisms. These factors in this case are called trophic, i.e. food.

Environmental factors under the influence of newly obtained chemicals that do not exist in nature and man-made man-made components are greatly changed. Pollutants appear, which leads to disruption of saprophytic (maintaining balance in the ecosystem) interaction in the natural environment. This is often accompanied by the death of animals and plants, leads to disruption of functions, death of all living things and desertification of the earth. The predominant species in the microbiota are pathogenic microorganisms that can be classified as biological pollutants. The composition of the atmosphere changes negatively, and the aggressiveness of underground and groundwater increases. The planet is experiencing warming, depletion of the ozone layer, and acid rain is becoming more frequent.

All of these factors influence not only living organisms (including humans), but also monuments, and failure to take even one of them into account can affect the quality of restoration and even lead to the death of the monument.

Living organisms in nature exist in the form populations - historically developed natural populations of individuals of a given species, connected by relationships and adaptation in the conditions of a certain area or other habitat (biotope). In natural conditions, the number and density of the population are not random; they are determined by regulating (controlling) environmental factors. The ability of the environment to support the normal functioning of an organism or population is called Ecosi capacitystems.

Ecological system (ecosystem) is a set of interconnected and interdependent different types of organisms living together and the conditions of their existence. Connected in the ecosystem biocenosis(a community of living organisms together) and biotope(habitat). The main types of natural ecosystems on the globe are listed on rice. 1.4.

Rice. 1.4. Main types of natural ecosystems

Academician V.N. Sukachev proposed the concept biogeocenosis(from Greek bios- life, Gaia - Earth, cenosis - general) is a natural system of living organisms and their surrounding abiotic environment, connected by the exchange of substances, energy and information. Now the terms “ecosystem” and “biogeocenosis” are considered almost synonymous.

The biogeocenosis includes:

Plant component (phytocenosis);

Animal component (zoocenosis);

Microorganisms (microbiocenosis);

Soil and soil-groundwater, in interaction with plant, animal components and microorganisms forming an edaphotope;

The atmosphere, which, interacting with other components, forms a climate;

Inanimate nature, which is an inert substance, is an ecotope.

Thus, biogeocenosis is a spatially isolated, integral elementary unit of the biosphere, all components of which are closely interconnected. The main components of biogeocenosis are three groups of organisms - plants, animals and microbes, with the help of which substances move from one component to another, reflecting a well-known general pattern cycle of substances in nature.

Ecological components of biogeocenosis(or landscape, or environment-forming components) in ecology are considered as the main material and energy components of ecological systems. To them, according to N.F. Reimers (Figure 1.5.), include: energy, gas composition (atmosphere), water (liquid component), soil substrate, autotrophic producers (plants) and heterotrophic organisms (consumers and decomposers). Today, information is being added to this list of environmental components.

Rice. 1.5. Ecological components (according to N.F. Reimers)

At the same time, all environmental components are natural resources, the quality of which determines the quality of human life, and anthropogenic disruption of interactions between them can reduce this quality.

In real ecosystems, the cycle is usually open, since some substances leave the ecosystem, and some come from outside. But in general, the principle of the cycle in nature remains the same. Simpler ecosystems are united into a common planetary ecosystem (biosphere), in which the cycle of substances is fully manifested - life on Earth arose billions of years ago, and if there were no closed flow of substances necessary for life, their reserves would have been exhausted long ago and life would have ceased.

Human intervention negatively affects the circulation processes. For example, deforestation or disruption of the processes of assimilation of substances by plants as a result of pollution lead to a decrease in the intensity of carbon assimilation. An excess of organic elements in water, which occurs under the influence of industrial wastewater, causes decay of reservoirs and excessive consumption of oxygen dissolved in water, which eliminates the possibility of the development of aerobic (oxygen-consuming) bacteria here. By burning fossil fuels, fixing atmospheric nitrogen in industrial products, and binding phosphorus in synthetic detergents, people disrupt the cycle of these elements.

The circulation of substances in nature implies a general consistency of place, time and speed of processes occurring at different levels - from the population to the biosphere. This consistency of natural phenomena is called ecological balance; This equilibrium is mobile, dynamic.

In an ecological system (without human intervention), a balance is maintained that excludes the irreversible destruction of certain links in trophic chains. Man, in the process of his activities, constantly influences the ecosystem as a whole, as well as its individual links. This can manifest itself in the form of the introduction of new components into the ecosystem, including pollutants, or the destruction of individual components (shooting animals, deforestation, etc.). These influences do not always and not immediately lead to the disintegration of the entire system and disruption of its stability. But maintaining the system does not mean that it has remained unchanged. The system is being transformed, and it is extremely difficult to assess the number and direction of the changes that have occurred.

As a result of human production activity, a new process of metabolism and energy has arisen between nature and society (while maintaining biological exchange) - anthropogenic exchange, which significantly changes the planetary cycle of substances, sharply accelerating it. Anthropogenic exchange differs from the biotic cycle in that it is not closed; it is open in nature. The input of anthropogenic exchange is natural resources, and the output is industrial and household waste. The ecological imperfection of anthropogenic exchange lies in the fact that the coefficient of beneficial use of natural resources is, as a rule, extremely low, and production waste pollutes the natural environment. Moreover, many of them do not decompose to their natural state. The scale and speed of anthropogenic exchange are increasing sharply, causing noticeable tension in the biosphere.

At the last stage of the development of the biosphere, human activity has become a powerful force, irreversibly and purposefully changing the natural environment. Formed biotechnosphere - a consequence of the social and scientific-technical development of mankind. The relationship between nature and man is in many cases unbalanced, leading to environmental depression (in particular, the destruction of the architectural and historical environment), which can lead to degradation of the biosphere.

The new system formed by the builders can be called natural-technogenic (NTS). The process of its formation, if it is not adjusted in accordance with environmental components (in other words, in accordance with the laws of ecosystem development), as a rule, leads to a violation of natural

interactions in a natural system, mainly due to the introduction of “alien” components into it, which can be perceived by the ecosystem as pollutants. Underestimation of these interactions during construction activities is unacceptable, as it leads to a decrease in the quality of construction and deteriorates the quality of the living environment.

The environmentally unsound activities of builders and restorers cause irreparable damage to the natural landscape and the information component of the ecosystem. As Prutsyn O.I. notes, the architectural and historical environment is being destroyed*: “The silhouette of spatial compositions, the harmonious subordination of the entire structure, and ensemble unity are being disrupted. The silhouette and proportionality achieved in the historical period must be fully preserved, because, thanks to the classical proportions, they can easily be combined with any upcoming development.”

It should not be forgotten that landscape is a comprehensive and timeless reality in which man existed in the pre-urban era. It was precisely the impeccable sense of landscape that was inherent in people in past centuries, when buildings merged with the natural environment. The architecture of the past and today represents a school of excellence in architecture and urban planning in Rus'. Already from the 11th century. The city authorities obliged developers to comply with urban planning rules and laws governing the relationship between architecture and nature. In Rus' since the 11th century. The Byzantine “City Law” was in force, written down in the helmsmen’s books**. Among his provisions were, for example, the following: “Only then can a building be truly seen when it is located in a well-ordered place. Before building, inspect the area carefully. Choose a location so that the building does not interfere with nature.” Or these: “...we command that those who renovate a dilapidated courtyard do not take away the light from their neighbor and do not deprive him of their appearance, do not change the original image”; “...do not forcibly block your neighbor’s view if he directly sees the sea while standing in his yard.” And today, in construction and restoration activities, “natural” logic should become fundamental.

At the stage of development of a reasonable attitude towards nature conservation, there should be a gradual transformation of the biotechnosphere into noosphere - the sphere of reason, which, according to V.I. Vernadsky, is an inevitable and natural stage in the development of the biosphere.

Proof of the beginning of such a transformation is the concept of “sustainable development”, “sustainable construction”, “sustainable restoration” adopted by the UN, which is directly related to the concept of “ecological sustainability”. The latter implies the ability of an ecosystem to maintain its structure and functional characteristics when exposed to external factors. Often “environmental sustainability” is considered as a synonym for environmental stability.

Below are the basic concepts and requirements related to the category of environmental sustainability. Their understanding is necessary for solving current problems of environmental management in the areas of construction and restoration activities, creating a comfortable living environment and determining the strategy for activities in the field of “sustainable development”, “sustainable construction”, “sustainable restoration”.

* Prutsyn O., Rymashevsky B., Borusevich V. Architectural and historical environment. - M.: Stroyizdat, 1990.

** Alferova G.V. The helmsman's book as the most valuable source of ancient Russian urban planning art // Byzantine temporary book, 1973. - T. 35.