Tkachev with d zabramnaya and. Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

PSYCHOLOGICAL PEDAGOGICAL DIAGNOSIS

Edited by I. Yu. Levchenko, S. D. Zabramnaya

Approved by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

as a teaching aid for students of higher educational institutions studying in the specialties "Tyflopedagogy", "Deaf Pedagogy", "Oligofrenopedagogy", "Speech Therapy", "Special Psychology", "Special Preschool Pedagogy and Psychology"

4th edition stereotypical

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doctor of psychological sciences, professor, full member of the Russian Academy of Education

V. I. Lubovsky; Candidate of Psychological Sciences N.B.Shabalina

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È. Y.Levchenko - 2; 3.1; 3.3; 3.4 et al. with N.A. Kiseleva; 5.3;

Ñ. D. Zabramnaya - 1; 3.2; 4.4; 6; T.A. Basilova - 5.5; T.G. Bogdanova - 5.1;

Ò. N. Volkovskaya - 3.5; 4.1; 4.2; 4.3; T.A. Dobrovolskaya - 4.5; 7;

Ë. I. Solntseva - 5.2; V.V. Tkachev - 5.4; eight

Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics: textbook. allowance for P863 stud. higher ped. textbook establishments / I.Yu. Levchenko, S.D. Zabramnaya, T.A. Dobrovolskaya and others; ed. I.Yu. Levchenko, S.D. Zabramnaya. - 4th ed., erased. - M.: Publishing

center "Academy", 2007. - 320 p. ISBN 978-5-7695-4129-2

The textbook outlines the theoretical and methodological foundations of the psychological and pedagogical study of children with developmental disabilities. An integrated approach to the study of such children is considered, which combines the efforts of doctors, teachers, psychologists, and social workers. The features of the psychological and pedagogical study of children with various developmental disorders at different age stages are revealed. The organization and content of the activities of the psychodiagnostic service in special education, as well as work with a family raising a child with developmental disabilities are shown.

For students of higher pedagogical educational institutions. It can be useful for teachers and psychologists.

5.2.4. Principles of adapting diagnostic methods when examining children of different age groups

FOREWORD

The textbook "Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics" is addressed to students of the faculties of special psychology and correctional pedagogy (defectological faculties) of pedagogical universities. The main purpose of the publication is to acquaint students with the theoretical foundations of psychodiagnostics of developmental disorders in children and show different approaches and ways of studying children with various developmental disabilities.

The textbook contains factual material that reflects the features of the psychodiagnostic procedure for examining children with developmental disabilities, as well as a description of the methods and techniques of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics.

031500 - Tiflopedagogy;

031600 - Deaf education;

031700 - Oligophrenopedagogy;

031800 - Speech therapy;

031900 - Special psychology;

032000 - Special preschool pedagogy and psychology. The book consists of a preface, eight chapters and appendices.

 The first chapter gives a historical overview of the development of psycho-pedagogical diagnostic methods in special psychology.

The second chapter contains an analysis of the theoretical and methodological foundations of psychodiagnostics of developmental disorders in children. It also discusses the tasks, principles and current problems of the psychological and pedagogical study of children with developmental disorders.

 the third chapter shows the main components of an integrated approach in psychological and pedagogical diagnostics: medical, pedagogical, socio-pedagogical, psychological and logopedic study of the child.

 the fourth chapter discusses the features psychological and pedagogical study of children at different age stages.

The fifth chapter introduces the features of the psychological and pedagogical study of children with various developmental disorders.

 the sixth chapter gives modern approaches to the organization and content of activities psychological-medical-pedagogical consultations, psychological-medical-pedagogical commissions and psychological-medical-pedagogical consultations.

The seventh chapter contains a brief overview of the issues of psychological counseling in the system of psychological and pedagogical support for a child with developmental disorders. This chapter traces the close relationship between psychodiagnostics and counseling.

 the eighth chapter presents materials that allow organizing a psychodiagnostic study of a family raising a child with a developmental disorder. These materials for defectologists are published for the first time.

Control questions and tasks that complete the presentation of each topic allow you to check the degree of assimilation of the material. At the end of each chapter and a number of paragraphs is a list of literature recommended for study.

Chapter 1 HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL

PEDAGOGICAL METHODS OF DIAGNOSIS

 SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGY

1.1. Development of psychological and pedagogical research methods abroad

The history of the development of psychological and pedagogical methods of research in special psychology is connected with the requirements of practice - medical and pedagogical. The objects of study were children, adolescents, adults who had various disorders of mental and mental development.

Depending on how different researchers understood the essence of mental retardation, they developed the methods that they used to identify it.

The first psychophysical underdevelopment of children began to deal with psychiatrists. Their efforts were aimed at distinguishing mental retardation from mental illness, while they dealt with the most profound and severe forms of underdevelopment. In the works of the French doctors J. Esquirol and E. Seguin, the first researchers of the problems of the mentally retarded, some differential diagnostic criteria are given. Thus, J. Esquirol considered the state of speech to be an indicator of intellectual development, which largely influenced the predominance of verbal tasks in subsequent test systems. E. Seguin attached great importance to the state of sensory and volitional processes. He created a methodology for teaching severely mentally retarded children, part of which were tasks for sensory discrimination and the development of voluntary motor actions. Developed by E. Seguin in 1866, "Form Boards" are still popular in the examination of mentally retarded children, they are among the tests of action, or non-verbal tests of intelligence. It should be noted that until the middle of the nineteenth century. the establishment of mental retardation remained predominantly a medical problem.

With the introduction of universal primary education in some countries, there has been a practical need to identify children who are not capable of learning in regular schools. In this regard, in the 60s. nineteenth century the first auxiliary classes were opened, as well as special schools for mentally retarded children. Now it has become much more difficult to determine mental retardation, since it was necessary to deal with its milder forms, which are difficult to distinguish from similar conditions with various developmental deviations in children. Progressive doctors and educators were concerned about the fact that children were often sent to auxiliary schools on the basis of only one indicator - poor progress. At the same time, the individual psychological characteristics of the child and the causes of poor progress were little taken into account, and sometimes they were not taken into account at all.

There was a need to streamline the system for selecting children in auxiliary schools. The establishment of mental retardation has become a psychological and pedagogical problem.

Psychologists came to the aid of doctors and teachers, who in their arsenal of methods also had experimental methods that appeared in these years (the end of the 19th-beginning of the 20th century). The search for the most objective, universal ways of examining children began, which should be regarded as a positive development in the development of the psychology of this period.

Experimental methods of studying children began to be used to diagnose abilities. Some psychologists misunderstood the essence of mental retardation, considering it as a simple quantitative lag in the development of the intellect of children. They reduced mental retardation to impairment of only individual functions, and saw the objectives of the experiment in studying only these functions. Their methodical approach was to measure the "amount of mind" in the subject, which in practice led to significant errors in diagnosing mental retardation. This measurement was carried out using tests. A test is a test that includes the performance of a specific task, identical for all subjects examined, using an accurate technique to evaluate success or failure, or to record results numerically (A. Pieron).

One of the first to start testing was the English biologist F. Galton. He developed simple tests to explore individual differences. At the same time, he considered the state of human sensory functions to be the main indicator of mental abilities: visual acuity and hearing, the speed of mental reactions, the ability to distinguish between heat, cold, pain, etc. F. Galton has not yet used the term "test" in the sense that A. Binet later puts into it. But this was the first departure from testing and testing based on intuition.

Pedagogical University "SEPTEMBER ONE"

Irina LEVCHENKO,
Doctor of Psychology
sophia zabramnaya,
candidate of pedagogical sciences

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL DIAGNOSTICS OF DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS

Levchenko Irina Yurievna- Doctor of Psychology, Professor, Head of the Department of Special Psychology and Clinical Fundamentals of Defectology, Moscow State Open Pedagogical University; heads the section of correctional pedagogy of the Federal Expert Council. Author of textbooks, educational and methodological manuals, articles on the problems of abnormal development, organization and content of the activities of a practical psychologist in special education.

Zabramnaya Sofia Davydovna -Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor of the Department of Oligophrenopedagogy of the Moscow State Pedagogical University, author of more than 120 papers on the study, education and upbringing of children with developmental disabilities. He is one of the leading specialists in the field of diagnostics and correction of developmental disorders in children.

COURSE CONCEPT

The last decades are characterized by a steady increase in the number of children with developmental disabilities (more than 70%); most of them need further correctional-pedagogical and psychological assistance.

The success of upbringing, education, social adaptation of a child with developmental disorders depends on the correct assessment of his capabilities and developmental characteristics. This task is solved by complex psychodiagnostics of developmental disorders. It is the first and very important stage in the system of measures that provide special education, allows you to determine the optimal pedagogical route, provide individual psychological and pedagogical support for the child, corresponding to his psychophysical abilities.

The majority of children with mild disabilities attend ordinary kindergartens and study in public schools. A school psychologist should be able to identify a child with developmental disabilities, examine him, develop an individual psycho-correction program, and give qualified advice to parents and teachers.

The course is addressed to psychologists of mass and special educational institutions. Its goal is to form theoretical, methodological and practical approaches to the study of children with various developmental disabilities in a psychologist.

COURSE PLAN
"Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics of developmental disorders"

Lecture 1
HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL
DIAGNOSIS METHODS IN SPECIAL
OF DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN PSYCHOLOGY

HISTORY OF PSYCHODIAGNOSTIC
RESEARCH ABROAD

The history of the development of psychological and pedagogical methods of research in special psychology is connected with the requirements of practice, primarily medical and pedagogical. The objects of study were children, adolescents, adults who had various mental development disorders, including mentally retarded.

Depending on how various researchers understood the essence of mental retardation, there were also methods that they used to identify it. Psychiatrists were the first to deal with the issues of psychophysical underdevelopment of children. Their efforts were aimed at distinguishing mental retardation from mental illness, and they dealt with the most profound and severe forms of underdevelopment. In the works of French doctors J.E.D. Esquirol (1772–1840), E. Seguin (1812–1880), who are credited with the first studies of the mentally retarded, some differential diagnostic criteria are given. So, J.E.D. Esquirol considered the state of speech to be an indicator of intellectual development, and this largely influenced the linguistic (verbal) nature of subsequent tests. E. Seguin attached great importance to the state of sensory and volitional processes. He created a methodology for teaching severely mentally retarded children, which included tasks for sensory discrimination and the development of voluntary motor actions. Developed by E. Seguin (1866) "Form boards" are still popular in the examination of mentally retarded children, they are among the tests of action, or non-verbal tests of intelligence. It should be noted that until the middle of the nineteenth century. the establishment of mental retardation remained predominantly a medical problem.

With the introduction of universal primary education in some countries, there is a practical need to identify children who are incapable of learning in regular schools. In this regard, in
60s nineteenth century the first auxiliary classes are opened, as well as special schools for mentally retarded children. Now it has become much more difficult to determine mental retardation, since it was necessary to deal with its milder forms, which are difficult to distinguish from similar conditions. Progressive doctors and educators were concerned about the fact that children were often sent to auxiliary schools on the basis of only one indicator - poor progress. At the same time, little, and sometimes not at all, was taken into account the individual psychological characteristics of the child and the causes of poor progress.

There was a need to streamline the system for selecting children in auxiliary schools. The establishment of mental retardation turns into a psychological and pedagogical problem.

Psychologists came to the aid of doctors and teachers, who in their arsenal of methods also had experimental methods that appeared in these years (the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century). Searches are being made for the most objective, compact and universal ways of examining children, which should be regarded as a positive development in the development of the psychology of this period. Experimental methods of studying children began to be used to diagnose abilities. Some psychologists have misunderstood the essence of mental retardation, considering it as a simple quantitative lag in the development of the intellect of children. They reduced mental retardation to a violation of only individual functions and saw the objectives of the experiment in the study of only these functions. Their methodical approach was to measure the “amount of mind” of the subject, which in practice led to significant errors in diagnosing mental retardation. This measurement was carried out using tests. A test is a test involving the performance of a specific task, identical for all subjects, using a precise technique to measure success or failure, or to record results numerically (Pieron).

One of the first to start testing was the English biologist F. Galton (1822–1911). He developed color tests to investigate individual differences. At the same time, he considered the state of human sensory functions to be the main indicator of mental abilities: visual acuity and hearing, the speed of mental reactions, the ability to distinguish between heat, cold, pain, etc. F. Galton has not yet used the term “test” in the sense that A. Binet (1857–1911) later puts into it. But this was the first departure from testing and testing based on intuition.

The idea of ​​studying physical and mental abilities by the method of tests was developed in the works of the American psychologist J.M. Cattell (1860–1944). The appearance of the term "intellectual test" in the psychological literature is associated with his name. J.M. Cattell created a series of test tests aimed at determining sensorimotor reactions, the speed of mental processes, sensitivity, etc. to establish individual differences. Cattell's merit was the idea of ​​standardizing tests in order to obtain more accurate information.

The measurement of more complex mental processes (perception, memory, etc.) formed the basis of a series of tests created by the German psychologist E. Kraepelin (1856–1926), who studied the mentally ill. Describing the period before the beginning of the 20th century, scientists note that "it is a preparatory and at the same time a transitional stage on the way to the creation of psychological testing itself." The subsequent development of intelligence tests is associated with the activities of the French psychologist A. Binet, who back in 1897 suggested the development of a “metric scale of reason” - such a system for studying a child, in which the measurement of his “mental age” is taken as the basis. At the same time, A. Binet set the task of creating tests that would investigate higher mental processes - thinking, memory, imagination. In 1904, A. Binet was invited to a commission set up by the French Ministry of Public Education to develop measures to ensure proper education for mentally retarded children who cannot master the curriculum of an ordinary school. The task was to determine the methods for selecting these children for special schools. A. Binet, together with T. Simon, for the first time bring tests into a certain system, which they called the "Metric Scale of Mental Abilities".

The first version of their "Metric Scale" was published in 1905. It contained 30 tests, arranged in order of increasing difficulty. These tests were aimed at determining the type of memory in children, understanding of verbal instructions, etc. In this variant, there were no age indicators.

In 1908, the second, revised, version of the "Metric Scale" was published, in which tests were grouped by age levels from 3 to 15 years. For each age - from 3 to 8 tests.

The third version appeared in 1911. In it, A. Binet and T. Simon offer tests for examining children from 3 to 16 years old. The tests were redistributed according to their difficulty. For each age, 5 tasks. But even in this variant, the choice of tests is not always psychologically justified. So, for one age they offer tests for combination, for another - for memory research. This was pointed out by A.M. Schubert in his preface to the Russian edition of tests. She noted other shortcomings of this system, for example, that the tests are not always correctly assigned to a particular age due to their difficulty, some are subjective, and the successful completion of many tests depends mainly on the child's life experience.

So, in the fifth test, children of 9 years old are asked questions: “What should you do if you miss the train?”, “What should you do if your friend (girlfriend) accidentally hits you?”. Requires two correct answers out of three. Given up to 20 seconds. Children 10 years of age in the third test are offered five questions. Given 40 seconds. Among these questions is the following: “On one of the very first warm days, when the forests and fields began to turn green, the woman took a sickle and went to harvest rye. What's wrong here?" However, not every ten-year-old child living in the city knows when and how to reap rye!

Children aged 15 in the fifth test are required to answer two questions, but both of them are related to life situations that may be unfamiliar to the subjects, for example: “A doctor just came to my neighbor, and then a priest. What do you think is going on with my neighbor?” Thus, although Binet and Simon sought to explore the "pure" mind, the faculty of judgment, they did not achieve this.

The disadvantage of the scale was that 80% of the tests were verbal in nature. The predominance of verbal tests influenced the results of the examination of children of different social strata, the poorest children were in the worst position. Children with speech defects also gave unsatisfactory results.

Of course, the point of view of the authors of the test was also erroneous, that when determining abilities, only what the child knows and can do at the moment should be recorded. They did not take into account the dialectics of development, they did not take into account those qualitative changes in the psyche that appear at different stages of a child's development. L.S. Vygotsky, criticizing such an approach, wrote: “The development of a child ... is conceived as a purely quantitative process of the growth of qualitatively homogeneous and different units, which are fundamentally replaced at any stage of development. A year of development is always a year, whether the child is moving from six to seven, or from twelve to thirteen. This is Binet's basic concept, in which the year of development is always measured by five indicators, which take into account, as a completely equivalent value, the determined mental growth of the child. Whether it is the growth of the twelfth or third year of life. Fixing only the final results of work with the test, mechanically counting the pluses and minuses received for the answers, it was not possible to trace the nature of the children's activities. All this led to difficulties and errors in diagnosing mental retardation, especially when children in borderline conditions were examined.

In the same period, professor of psychology at the University of Rome S. de Sanctis (1862–1954), who studied mentally retarded children, offers his series of tasks from 6 experiments to determine the degree of mental underdevelopment. The experiments were aimed at studying attention, volitional efforts, direct memory for colors, shapes, the ability to rearrange specific objects, visually determine size, distance. S. de Sanctis believed that the experiments are applicable to children not younger than 7 years old. If the subject can complete only the first two tasks, then he has a "sharp degree" of weakness, if he performs the first four, then he has a "medium degree", if he copes with the fifth experience, then a "slight degree" of lag. Children who perform all six experiments are not mentally retarded. Analysis of the method of S. de Sanctis shows its unsuitability for the diagnosis of mental development. Mental processes were arbitrarily chosen as a diagnostic criterion, and the very border of the degrees of mental retardation was conditional. These shortcomings have been pointed out by many researchers. The most reasonable criticism was given by G. Ya. Troshin (1915). The method of S. de Sanctis has not received wide distribution in practice.

Binet's and Simon's tests were the most popular abroad. Moreover, even before the revision of the 1908 version, many countries of the world began to use these tests.

About 60 authors were engaged in the modernization of the Binet-Simon scale, adapting it to local conditions. Changes to Binet's system were made by O. Decroli and Degan (Belgium, 1910), Decedre (Switzerland), V. Stern, Emeiman (Germany, 1915, 1917), H. Goddard, L. Theremin (USA, 1910, 1916). The version of the Binet-Simon scale, prepared by L. Theremin at Stanford University in the USA in 1916, according to psychologists, turned out to be the most viable. One of the trends that emerged during the modernization of the system is a decrease in the number of verbal tests and an increase in action (non-verbal) tests.

In the process of reconstructing the Binet–Simon scale, L. Theremin introduced a new requirement that a test adequate to its purpose must satisfy: the results of the test on a large sample of subjects should be distributed along a Gaussian curve. Thus, it was proposed to rank the subjects according to their place on the curve. (A Gaussian or normal distribution curve is shaped like a bell; this distribution of results means that the vast majority of subjects perform the task "moderately well", that is, their answers create a high part of the bell; a minority perform tasks very badly or very well, their answers create peripheral parts of the bell.) To interpret the results of the test, L. Termen first began to use the concept of "intellectual quotient" (IQ) introduced by V. Stern, which was the ratio of mental age to chronological (passport) age. The intelligence of the test-takers was evaluated purely quantitatively by the sum of their scores.

V. Stern proposed the following formula for determining the intellectual coefficient:

Mental age is determined by the success of the corresponding standard tasks. For each age, tasks of a certain difficulty are provided. For each age, the typical IQ is 100 + 16. This value is determined by the fact that normally the mental age is equal to the chronological one: for example, a five-year-old child performs tasks corresponding to his age. Therefore, IQ \u003d 5: 5 x 100, that is, 100. The standard deviation from individual values ​​​​does not exceed 16. Accordingly, all individual test indicators that fall in the range from 84 to 116 are considered normal, age-appropriate. If the test score is above 116, the child is considered gifted; if below 84, it means that the intellectual development is behind the norm.

In subsequent years, including the present, various psychodiagnostic technologies continue to be developed - tests, questionnaires, psychophysiological methods, etc. Along with intelligence tests, tests aimed at studying personality are used. Of particular interest are the projective techniques - "spots" by Rorschach (1921), TAT by Murray and Morgan (1935), Rosenzweig's frustration test (1945).

As for intelligence tests, the D. Wexler test (the so-called Wexler-Bellevue scale) is currently quite widely used. It was developed in the 1940s and 1950s, and in addition to scales for adults (WAIS), there are also scales for children (WISC). This test includes both verbal and non-verbal scales, which is different from most tests of mental development. In addition, it provides for the possibility of determining the nature of the lag in intellectual development (however, critics of this test argue that the probability of erroneous qualification of violations is very high). In our country, the Wexler test was adapted by A.Yu. Panasyuk (1973). The standard IQ calculated from the test has a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.

Another popular test is J. Raven's test (1936, 1949). It consists of 60 matrices, or compositions, with missing elements, which the subject must fill in.

It should be noted that the assessment parameters for intellectual tests are influenced by the way the authors define the very concept of "mental retardation", which underwent significant conceptual changes in the period 1960–1990.

Tests are also being developed for infants and young children. For example, N. Bailey's scales for the study of children from 2 months to 2.5 years have become widespread. They assess mental development (perception, memory, the beginnings of verbal communication, elements of abstract thinking, learning), motor development (the ability to sit, stand, walk, the development of small finger movements), emotional and social behavior. Although the Bailey scales state only the level of development of functions at the moment and do not aim to give a forecast, they are nevertheless very useful for the early detection of certain sensory, neurological, emotional disorders.

However, no changes and "improvements" to the Binet-Simon scale did not save it from such shortcomings as the assessment of only the final result when performing the task, did not reveal the difficulties that the subject encountered in this case. The role of aid, as well as the influence of the environment, was not taken into account at all. J. Piaget criticized the tests for "mosaic", the diversity of the tasks included in the test systems. The final result was also negatively affected by the time limit allotted for solving the test, as well as the lack of a truly scientific evaluation criterion. One of the reasons for this was in a different understanding of what intelligence is. There was no consensus among textual scholars on what intelligence tests should measure, so often test batteries were built on the basis of conflicting models of intelligence.

It should be noted that by the beginning of the twentieth century. include the first attempts to study children for a long time. Thus, in Belgium, at the suggestion of O. Decroly (1871–1932), special “observation” classes began to be created at auxiliary schools. These classes were organized in order to clarify the diagnosis of individual students, as well as to develop some basic recommendations for subsequent work with them. "Observation" classes were one of the elements in the structure of the auxiliary school, but in the future they did not become widespread. Obviously, this was due to the development and increasing use at that time of standardized test methods of examination, which bribed researchers with their ease of use. The craving for tests caused a weakening of attention to the long ways of studying the child.

It should be noted that in the process of developing and modernizing tests, the authors improved the methodology for their use, striving for greater reliability and objectivity in evaluating the results. As K.M. Gurevich, most modern foreign tests are “characterized by a high methodological level”, high validity (the adequacy and effectiveness of the test - that is, to what extent the test reflects what it should measure, and how accurately it does this), as well as the representativeness of the samples on which standard scores.

HISTORY OF RUSSIAN PSYCHODIAGNOSTICS
DEVELOPMENTAL DISTURBANCES

In Russia, the development of psychological and pedagogical methods for diagnosing developmental disorders has its own history. The need to develop methods for detecting mental retardation in children arose at the beginning of the 20th century. in connection with the opening of the first auxiliary schools and auxiliary classes (1908–1910). A group of teachers and enthusiastic doctors (E.V. Gerye, V.P. Kashchenko, M.P. Postovskaya, N.P. Postovsky, G.I. Rossolimo, O.B. Feltsman, N.V. Chekhov and others .) conducted a mass survey of underachieving students in Moscow schools in order to identify children whose underachievement was due to intellectual deficiency.

The study was carried out by collecting personal data about children, studying pedagogical characteristics, conditions of home education and medical examination of children. During these years, researchers experienced great difficulties due to the lack of scientific medical and psychological data on mental retardation. Nevertheless, to the credit of domestic psychologists, teachers, doctors, their work on the study of children was distinguished by great thoroughness, the desire to exclude the possibility of errors in establishing mental retardation. Great care in determining the diagnosis was dictated mainly by humane considerations.

Questions of methods for examining children were the subject of discussion at the First All-Russian Congress on Experimental Pedagogy (December 26-31, 1910, St. Petersburg) and at the IV section of the First All-Russian Congress on Public Education (December 13, 1913 - January 3, 1914, St. Petersburg ). Although the majority of participants in the congress were in favor of using the test method in psychological research, the importance of the method of observation was also emphasized. Great importance was attached to physiological and reflexological methods. The question was raised about the dynamic unity of the methods of studying the child. However, the congresses did not resolve the disputes that arose around the question of research methods, which can be largely explained by the insufficiently scientific position that many psychologists, teachers and doctors took in those years.

Of interest is the method of studying children, created by the largest Russian neuropathologist G.I. Rossolimo (1860–1928). As a supporter of experimental research in psychology, he advocated the need to use test methods. Rossolimo made an attempt to create such a system of tests, with the help of which it would be possible to investigate as many individual mental processes as possible. He studied attention and will, the accuracy and strength of visual perceptions, associative processes. At the same time, non-verbal tasks predominated. The result was drawn in the form of a graph-profile, hence the name of the method - "Psychological Profiles".

The full version of the work of G.I. Rossolimo (1909) contained 26 studies. Each study consisted of 10 tasks and lasted 2 hours, was carried out in three sessions. It is clear that such a system, due to its cumbersomeness, was inconvenient to use, so Rossolimo further simplified it by creating a “Brief Method for the Study of Mental Retardation”. This method was used regardless of the age of the subject. It included a study of 11 mental processes, which were assessed on 10 tasks (a total of 110 tasks). The result was displayed in the form of a curve - a "profile". In comparison with the Binet-Simon method, an attempt was made in the Rossolimo method to take a qualitative-quantitative approach to assessing the results of a child's work. According to the psychologist and teacher P.P. Blonsky (1884-1941), Rossolimo's "Profiles" are the most indicative of mental development. Unlike foreign tests, they show a tendency for a multidimensional personality characteristic.

However, the Rossolimo method also has a number of disadvantages. First of all, these shortcomings relate to the choice of the studied processes. Rossolimo did not investigate the verbal-logical thinking of children, did not give tasks to establish their learning ability.

Vygotsky noted that, having decomposed the complex activity of the human personality into a number of individual simple functions and measuring each of them by purely quantitative indicators, Rossolimo tried to sum up completely incommensurable terms. “In the overall result that determines development, units of attention are counted on a par with units of memory, just as in the head of a naive schoolchild kilometers are added up with kilograms in one total amount.” Describing the methods of tests as a whole, Vygotsky pointed out that they give only a negative characterization of the child and help to distinguish him from the mainstream school, but these methods are not able to reveal what the qualitative features of development are.

It should be noted that, using tests, most domestic psychologists, as already noted, did not consider them the only universal means of studying the personality of children. So, for example, A.M. Schubert, who translated the Binet-Simon tests into Russian, wrote that the study of mental giftedness by the Binet-Simon method by no means excludes psychologically correct systematic observation and evidence of school success: it only supplements them. Much earlier, in characterizing various systems of tests, she also pointed out that only long-term, systematic observation can characterize a case, and only repeated and carefully designed experimental psychological studies of mental abilities can be undertaken to help it.

The need to monitor children was pointed out by many researchers who dealt with the problems of mental retardation (V.P. Kashchenko, O.V. Feltsman, G.Ya. Troshin and others). Particularly important are the materials of comparative psychological and clinical studies of normal and abnormal children by G. Ya. Troshina (1874–1938). The data obtained by him not only enrich the special psychology of children with various developmental defects, but also help in solving problems of differential psychodiagnostics. Troshin also emphasized the value of observing the behavior of children in natural settings.

The first to create a special technique for conducting targeted observations was A.F. personality studies" (1915), "Classification of Personality" (1922).

Although the method of A.F. Lazursky also has drawbacks (he understood the child’s activity only as a manifestation of innate properties and proposed to identify these properties in order to build the pedagogical process in accordance with them), however, his works contain many useful recommendations.

Lazursky's great merit was that he studied the child in activities in natural conditions through objective observation, developed the so-called natural experiment, which includes both elements of purposeful observation and special tasks.

The advantage of a natural experiment compared to laboratory observation is that the researcher, through a special system of training, can cause the necessary psychological manifestations in the subjects, and at the same time, all this takes place in an environment familiar to children, where there is no artificiality, the child does not even suspect that he is being watched.

Experimental lessons were a great scientific achievement in the study of schoolchildren. Describing them, Lazursky wrote that an experimental lesson is a lesson in which, on the basis of previous observations and analyzes, the most characterologically significant elements of a given subject are grouped, so that the individual characteristics of the students corresponding to them manifest themselves very sharply in such a lesson.

A special role in the development of scientific foundations for diagnosing children with developmental disabilities belongs to L.S. Vygotsky (1896–1934). Vygotsky considered the child's personality in development, inextricably linked with the impact that upbringing, training and environment have on him. Unlike testologists, who only statically ascertained the level of development of the child at the time of the examination, Vygotsky advocated a dynamic approach to the study of children. He considered it obligatory not only to take into account what the child had already achieved at previous life stages, but mainly to establish the immediate possibilities of children, “to take into account not only the process of development that has been completed to date, not only the cycles already completed, not only the processes of maturation that have already been completed, but and those processes that are now in a state of formation, which are only maturing, only developing”, to reveal the so-called “zone of proximal development”.

Vygotsky proposed not to limit the study of the child to one-time tests of what he can do himself, but to follow how he will use the help, what, therefore, is the forecast for the future in the matter of his education and upbringing. Vygotsky especially sharply raised the question of the need to establish the qualitative features of the course of mental processes, to identify the prospects for the development of the individual.

Vygotsky's propositions on the zones of actual and proximal development, on the role of the adult in shaping the child's psyche, are of great importance. Later, in the 70s. In the twentieth century, on the basis of these provisions, an extremely important method for studying children with developmental disabilities was developed - a learning experiment (T.V. Egorova, 1973; A.Ya. Ivanova, 1976, etc.). This type of experiment allows you to assess the potential of the child, the prospects for his development. In addition, it is extremely useful in differential diagnosis.

Very important is the requirement of L.S. Vygotsky to study the intellectual and emotional-volitional development of children in their relationship.

In the work Diagnostics of Development and the Pedological Clinic of Difficult Childhood (1931), Vygotsky proposed a scheme for the pedological study of children, which includes the following points:

1. Carefully collected complaints from parents, the child himself, the educational institution.

2. The history of the development of the child.

Z. Symptomatology (scientific ascertaining, description and definition of symptoms) of development.

4. Pedological diagnosis (opening the causes and mechanisms of the formation of this symptom complex).

5. Forecast (prediction of the nature of child development).

6. Pedagogical or medical-pedagogical purpose.

Opening each of these stages of the study, Vygotsky pointed out its most important points. Thus, he emphasized that it is necessary not only to systematize the symptoms identified, but to penetrate into the essence of developmental processes. Analysis of the history of a child's development, according to Vygotsky, involves determining the internal connections between the aspects of mental development, establishing the dependence of one or another line of a child's development on the harmful influences of the environment. Differential diagnostics should be based on a comparative study and not be limited to the measurement of intelligence, but take into account all the manifestations and facts of personality maturation.

All these provisions of Vygotsky are a great achievement of Russian science.

It should be noted that in the difficult socio-economic situation in the country in the 1920s and 1930s, leading teachers, psychologists, and doctors paid much attention to the problems of studying children. At the Children's Research Institute (Petrograd), under the direction of A.S. Griboyedov, in the Medical and Pedagogical Experimental Station (Moscow), led by V.P. Kashchenko, in a number of examination rooms and scientific and practical institutions, among the various studies in the field of defectology, a large place was occupied by the development of diagnostic methods. It was during this period that active activity of pedologists was noted. Their primary task was to help the school in the study of children. Tests were chosen as a tool in this work. However, their efforts led to mass testing in schools. And since not all the test methods used were perfect and specialists did not always use them, the results turned out to be unreliable in many cases. Children who were pedagogically and socially neglected were recognized as mentally retarded and sent to auxiliary schools. The inadmissibility of such a practice was indicated in the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of July 4, 1936 "On pedological perversions in the system of the People's Commissariat of Education."

But this document was perceived as a complete ban on the use of any psychodiagnostic methods, and especially tests, when examining children. As a result, psychologists stopped their research in this area for many years, which caused great damage to the development of psychological science and practice.

It should be noted that in subsequent years, despite all the difficulties, enthusiastic defectologists, psychologists, and doctors were looking for ways and methods for more accurate diagnosis of mental disorders. Only in cases of pronounced mental retardation was it allowed to examine children at the IPC without trial teaching them at school. The specialists of the medical-pedagogical commissions tried to prevent erroneous conclusions about the child's condition and about the type of institution in which he should continue his education. However, the insufficient development of methods and criteria for differential psychodiagnostics, the low level of organization of the work of medical and pedagogical commissions adversely affected the quality of the examination of children.

The attention of scientists and practitioners to the problems of staffing special institutions for the mentally retarded, and hence to the use of psychodiagnostic methods, has increased in
50–70s.

During this period, intensive research was carried out in the field of pathopsychology under the guidance of B.V. Zeigarnik (1900–1988), neuropsychological methods for studying children were developed under the guidance of A.R. Luria (1902–1977). The research of these scientists has significantly enriched the theory and practice of experimental psychological study of mentally retarded children. Great merit here also belongs to the psychologists V.V. Lebedinsky, V.I. Lubovsky, S.Ya. Rubinshtein.

In the 1980s and 1990s, the efforts of specialists in the development and improvement of organizational forms and methods for studying children with developmental disabilities, who need special training and education, became more and more active. Early differential diagnosis is carried out. Psychological and diagnostic research methods are being developed. At the initiative of the educational authorities, the Council of the Society of Psychologists, conferences, congresses, seminars are held on the problems of psychodiagnostics and the staffing of special institutions for abnormal children. The quality of training and retraining of personnel who directly carry out this work is improving. Research in this area continues to this day.

Unfortunately, as V.I. Lubovsky notes, far from all scientific achievements and methodological approaches to diagnosing developmental disabilities developed by L.S. Luria and others are currently used, and the actual psychological diagnosis is carried out "on an intuitive-empirical level".

After tests ceased to be the main method of diagnostic deviations in development due to the above shortcomings, psychologists began to arbitrarily use separate fragments of test batteries, separate tasks (for example, many pathopsychological methods that have become firmly established in the diagnostic arsenal of special psychology are basically tasks Wexler test). However, often a qualitative analysis, the need for which L.S. Vygotsky, S.Ya. Rubinshtein and others spoke, is replaced by a purely empirical, subjective one, and the reliability of the conclusions becomes entirely dependent on the experience and qualifications of the psychologist.

At the present stage, the study of V.I. Lubovsky is of great importance for the development of mental diagnosis of developmental disorders. Back in the 70s. 20th century he dealt with the problems of diagnosing mental development and put forward a number of important provisions designed to make the diagnosis more accurate and objective. Thus, noting the presence of general and specific for each category of children with developmental disabilities, he points to the prospects for the development of differential diagnosis. Lubovsky offers a more universal and objective approach to the analysis of the results of the study, namely, a combination of a quantitative assessment of the level of development of mental functions with a qualitative, structural analysis - with a predominance of qualitative. In this case, the level of development of a particular function is expressed not only in conditional scores, but also has a meaningful characteristic. This approach seems to be very fruitful, although its real implementation will become possible after the painstaking work of scientists and practitioners in this direction.

The modern diagnostics of mental development is enriched by neuropsychological methods, which have become more and more widely used in recent years. Neuropsychological techniques make it possible to determine the level of formation of cortical functions, help to identify the main radical of activity disorders. In addition, modern neuropsychological techniques make it possible to use a qualitative-quantitative approach, to identify the individual structure of disorders.

LITERATURE

1. Anastasi A. Psychological testing / Ed. K.M. Gurevich. - M.: Pedagogy, 1982. - Book 1. - P.17–29, 205–316.

2. Introduction to psychodiagnostics / Ed. K.M. Gurevich, E.M. Borisova. - M.: Academy, 1997.

3. Vygotsky L.S. Diagnostics of development and pedological clinic of difficult childhood // Sobr. cit.: In 6 volumes - M., 1984. - V.5. - S. 257–321.

4. Gurevich K.M. On the individual psychological characteristics of schoolchildren. - M., 1998.

5. Zabramnaya S.D.. Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics of mental development of children. - M., 1995. - Ch. II.

6. Zemsky Kh.S. History of oligophrenopedagogy. - M., 1980. - Part III, IV.

7. Lubovsky V.I. Psychological problems of diagnosing abnormal development of children. - M., 1989. - Ch. one.

8. Psychological diagnostics / Ed. K.M. Gurevich. - M., 1981. - Ch. 13.

9. Elkonin D.B. Some issues of diagnosing the mental development of children: Diagnostics of educational activity and intellectual development of children. - M., 1981.

QUESTIONS FOR SELF-CHECKING

1. What social problems caused the development of the first methods for diagnosing developmental disorders in children?
2. What contribution did A.F. Lazursky?
3. What is the essence of L.S. Vygotsky about studying the “zone of proximal development” of children?
4. What trends in the study of children with developmental disorders have emerged in recent decades in Russia and abroad?
5. When and in connection with what did the establishment of mental retardation become a psychological and pedagogical problem?

Levchenko I.Yu., Zabramnaya S.D., Dobrovolskaya T.A., Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics - M. Academy, 2003. 320 s / B5686Content.html psychology 1.1. Development of psychological and pedagogical research methods abroad 5 1.2. Development of psychological and pedagogical research methods in Russia 12 Chapter 2. Theoretical and methodological foundations of psychological and pedagogical diagnosis of developmental disorders in children 20 2.1. Modern ideas about developmental disorders in children 22 2.2. Methodological principles of psychological and pedagogical diagnosis of developmental disorders in children 29 2.3. Tasks of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics of developmental disorders in children 30 Chapter 3. An integrated approach to the study of children with developmental disorders 3.1. Medical examination in the system of complex study of a child with developmental disabilities 36 3.2. Pedagogical study of children with developmental disorders 40 3.3. Socio-pedagogical study of microsocial conditions and their influence on the development of the child 53 3.4. Psychological study of children with developmental disorders 54 3.4.1. Methods of psychological study of children with developmental disorders 59 3.4.2. Experimental psychological study of children with developmental disorders 62 3.4.3. Tests 83 3.4.4. Neuropsychological study of children with developmental disorders 90 3.4.5. Approaches to the study of the personality of children and adolescents with developmental disorders 93 3.5. Speech therapy examination in the system of complex study of children with developmental disorders 101 Chapter 4. Peculiarities of psychological and pedagogical study of children with developmental disabilities at different age stages 4.1. Psychological and pedagogical study of children in the first year of life 4.1.1. Features of development 127 4.1.2. Recommendations for the psychological and pedagogical study of children in the first year of life 129 4.2. Psychological and pedagogical study of young children (1-3 years old) 4.2.1. Features of development 137 4.2.2. Recommendations for the psychological and pedagogical study of young children 138 4.3. Psychological and pedagogical study of preschool children (from 3 to 7 years old) 4.3.1. Features of development 143 4.3.2. Recommendations for the psychological and pedagogical study of preschool children 144 4.4. Psychological and pedagogical study of school children 4.4.1. Features of development 148 4.4.2. Features of the psychological and pedagogical study of younger students 149 4.5. Psychological and pedagogical study of adolescents with developmental disorders 4. 5.1. Features of development 155 4.5.2. Goals and objectives of the psychological and pedagogical study of adolescents with developmental disorders 156 4.5.3. Features of the procedure for conducting a psychological study of adolescents with developmental disorders 158 4.5.4. Rules for constructing research programs 163 Chapter 5. Psychological and pedagogical study of children and adolescents with hearing, vision, musculoskeletal system, emotional development, complex developmental disorders 5.1. Psychological and pedagogical study of children with hearing impairments 169 5.2. Psychological and pedagogical study of children with visual impairments 177 5.2.1. Theoretical foundations for organizing examinations of children with visual impairments 179 5.2.2. Requirements for the examination of children with visual impairments 182 5.2.3. Features of the psychological and pedagogical diagnosis of children with visual impairments in different age periods 183 5.2.4. Principles of adapting diagnostic methods in the examination of children of different age groups with visual impairments 187 5.2.5. Standardized diagnostic methods adapted to work with children with visual impairments 191 5.3. Psychological and pedagogical study of children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system 193 5.4. Psychological and pedagogical study of children with disorders of the emotional-volitional sphere (with early childhood autism) 5.4.1. General characteristics of disorders in autistic children 202 5.4.2. The procedure for the psychological and pedagogical study of autistic children 213 5.5. Clinical-psychological-pedagogical study of children with complex developmental disorders 220 Chapter 6. Psychological-medical-pedagogical consultations in educational institutions, psychological-medical-pedagogical commissions and consultations 6.1. Psychological-medical-pedagogical consultations in educational institutions 230 6.1.1. Goals and objectives of the PMPK 231 6.1.2. Organization of activity of PMPK 232 6.2. Psychological-medical-pedagogical commissions and consultations 234 6.2.1. Consultative and diagnostic work 237 6.2.2. Methods of psychological and pedagogical research of children in PMPK 243 6.2.3. Methods of experimental psychological research in PMPK 247 Chapter 7. Organization and content of psychological counseling in the system of psychological and pedagogical support of a child with developmental disorders 254 7.1. The concept of psychological counseling 255 7.2. Methods of psychological counseling 258 7.3. Psychological counseling procedure 262 7.4. Basic principles and strategies of counseling 265 7. 5. Typical difficulties in the counseling process 266 7.6. Tasks of psychological counseling for families with children with developmental disabilities 268 7.7. Psychological counseling for children with developmental disabilities 271 Chapter 8. Psychological study of a family raising a child with developmental disabilities 8.1. Family study methods 280 8.1.1. Less formalized methods 281 8.1.2. Formalized methods 282 8.1.3. Methods for studying the relationship of the child to parents and society 283 8.1.4. Methods for studying the characteristics of the personality of parents 284 8.1.5. Methods for studying parent-child relationships 286 8.2. The procedure for the psychological study of the family 287 Appendix 1 291 Appendix 2 296 Appendix 3 302 Appendix 4 309 Levchenko I.Yu., Zabramnaya S.D., Dobrovolskaya T.A., Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics - M. Academy, 2003. 320 s / B5686Part1 -3.html 3:: 4:: Contents FOREWORD The textbook "Psychological and Pedagogical Diagnostics" is addressed to students of the faculties of special psychology and correctional pedagogy (defectological faculties) of pedagogical universities. The main purpose of the publication is to acquaint students with the theoretical foundations of psychodiagnostics of developmental disorders in children and show different approaches and ways of studying children with various developmental disabilities. The textbook contains factual material that reflects the features of the psychodiagnostic procedure for examining children with developmental disabilities, as well as a description of the methods and techniques of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics. The content of the manual complies with the requirements of the State Educational Standard for the training of a specialist in the following specialties: 031500 - Typhlopedagogy; 031600 - Deaf education; 031700 - Oligophrenopedagogy; 031800 - Speech therapy; 031900 - Special psychology; 032000 - Special preschool pedagogy and psychology. The book consists of a preface, eight chapters and appendices. The first chapter provides a historical overview of the development of psychological and pedagogical diagnostic methods in special psychology. The second chapter contains an analysis of the theoretical and methodological foundations of psychodiagnostics of developmental disorders in children. It also discusses the tasks, principles and current problems of the psychological and pedagogical study of children with developmental disorders. The third chapter shows the main components of an integrated approach in psychological and pedagogical diagnostics: medical, pedagogical, socio-pedagogical, psychological and logopedic study of the child. The fourth chapter discusses the features of the psychological and pedagogical study of children at different age stages. The fifth chapter introduces the features of the psychological and pedagogical study of children with various developmental disorders. 3 The sixth chapter gives modern approaches to the organization and content of the activities of psychological-medical-pedagogical consultations, psychological-medical-pedagogical commissions and psychological-medical-pedagogical consultations. The seventh chapter contains a brief overview of the issues of psychological counseling in the system of psychological and pedagogical support for a child with developmental disorders. This chapter traces the close relationship between psychodiagnostics and counseling. The eighth chapter presents materials that allow organizing a psychodiagnostic study of a family raising a child with a developmental disorder. These materials for defectologists are published for the first time. Control questions and tasks that complete the presentation of each topic allow you to check the degree of assimilation of the material. At the end of each chapter and a number of paragraphs is a list of literature recommended for study. The team of authors would like to thank all those who helped at various stages of preparing the book for publication. 4 3:: 4:: Contents Levchenko I.Yu., Zabramnaya S.D., Dobrovolskaya T.A., Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics - M. Academy, 2003. 320 s / B5686Part10-53.html 53:: 54: : Contents 3.3. Socio-pedagogical study of microsocial conditions and their influence on the development of the child Childhood is characterized by increased vulnerability and sensitivity to various influences of the microsocial environment. It is known that violations of relationships in the family, mistakes in family education negatively affect the somatic and mental development of the child. Many researchers have pointed out that the main causes of childhood neurosis and borderline mental illness are related to defects in upbringing and conflict relationships in the family. Violations of family relationships also have a negative impact on a child with developmental disorders, reduce the effectiveness of correctional and pedagogical measures, and provoke a variety of secondary deviations in his mental development. Some features of the socio-psychological structure of families are highlighted, in which the risk of neuropsychiatric diseases in children is especially high. These include the following: rigid dominance of one of the parents; communication barrier between the child and the father, as well as limiting the influence of the father on the process of family education; conflict in family relationships, violations of interpersonal relationships between parents; inconsistency in the requirements for the child on the part of the father and mother, as well as the grandparents. The family plays an important role in shaping the mental abilities of the child, his emotional-volitional sphere and personality. Children with socio-pedagogical neglect are more common in families where parents suffer from mental illness, alcoholism, in conflict and dysfunctional families where the child is brought up in conditions of neglect. Conversations with parents are an obligatory component of a comprehensive study of a child with developmental disorders. In a conversation with parents, one should: a) find out the role of the father and mother in the upbringing of the child; b) assess the type of family education; c) establish cause-and-effect relationships between the types of proper upbringing and the developmental characteristics of the child; d) compare the type of family education with the characteristics of the mental and personal development of the child. The following types of improper family education are described. Hypoopeka is a type of improper upbringing in which there is an emotional rejection of the child, manifested in open hostility, excessive demands, or, conversely, indifference and connivance. 53 Hyperprotection - excessive parental care for the child, manifested in increased affection, devotion to the child. The child is in the center of attention of the family, he is the object of admiration of his parents, who protect him from all life's difficulties and hardships. This type of upbringing is often found in families where children with visual, hearing, and musculoskeletal disorders are brought up. Contradictory upbringing - a different attitude towards the child on the part of family members, leading to the fact that different types of upbringing arise in it. It is often observed in families where one of the parents does not understand the problems in the development of the child and makes demands on him that do not correspond to his psychophysical characteristics. A socio-pedagogical examination is carried out by a social pedagogue of an educational institution (in his absence, by another teacher). In the process of conducting socio-pedagogical research, it is necessary to evaluate the following indicators: - the level of education of parents; - the general cultural level of the family; - material security; - living conditions; - features of relationships in the family; - the presence of bad habits in parents; - the state of health of the parents. The data given in Table 2 will help to analyze the obtained sociological information. To understand the psychological and pedagogical characteristics of a child with developmental disorders and to increase the effectiveness of corrective and developmental influence, it is of great importance to know and take into account the psychological characteristics of the parents raising this child and interpersonal relationships in the family. Approaches to the study of the characteristics of parents, interpersonal relationships in the family, ways and methods of psychological study of a family raising a child with developmental disabilities are described in Chapter 8. Very important sections of the comprehensive study of children with developmental disabilities are psychological and speech therapy research. 54 53:: 54:: Contents Levchenko I.Yu., Zabramnaya S.D., Dobrovolskaya T.A., Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics - M. Academy, 2003. 320 s / B5686Part11-54.html 54:: 55: :56::57::58::59:: Contents 3.4. Psychological study of children with developmental disorders Psychological diagnosis of developmental disorders in children is an integral part of a comprehensive clinical, psychological and pedagogical 54 Table 2 Social characteristics of the family Group of families Factors characterizing this group of families 1. Optimal Higher education of parents. High cultural level of the family. High financial security. Good living conditions. Psychologically healthy atmosphere. No bad habits. For health reasons - optimal 2. Good Higher and secondary education of parents. High and satisfactory cultural level. Good material and living conditions. Favorable family relationships. Bad habits - except alcohol abuse. For health reasons - optimal 3. Satisfactory One of the indicators is unsatisfactory (cultural level, living conditions, family relationships). For health reasons - satisfactory 4. Unsatisfactory The presence in the family of two or more unsatisfactory listed indicators. Low level of culture. Unfavorable psychological climate in the family. Bad habits - alcohol abuse. For health reasons - unsatisfactory and social examination. It is based on a number of principles formulated by leading experts in the field of special psychology and psychodiagnostics of impaired development (V.I. Lubovsky, T.V. Rozanova, S.D. Zabramnaya, O.N. Usanova and others). Psychodiagnostic examination of a child with developmental problems should be systemic, i.e. include the study of all aspects of the psyche (cognitive activity, speech, emotional-volitional sphere, personal development). Psychodiagnostic examination is organized taking into account the age and expected level of mental development of the child. It is these indicators that determine the organizational forms of the diagnostic procedure, the choice of methods and the interpretation of the results. Diagnostic tasks should be accessible to the child. During the survey, the child must be offered a task that he can successfully complete, and when analyzing the results, it is taken into account which tasks for which age group the child completed. 55 When examining, it is important to identify not only the actual, but also the potential capabilities of the child in the form of a "zone of proximal development" (L.S. Vygotsky). This is achieved by offering tasks of varying complexity and providing the child with dosed assistance in the course of their implementation. The selection of diagnostic tasks for each age stage should be carried out strictly on a scientific basis, i.e. in the examination, one should use those tasks that can reveal which aspects of mental activity are necessary to complete a given task and how they are violated in the child being examined. When processing and interpreting the results, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics should be given, while the system of qualitative and quantitative indicators should be unambiguous for all examined children. Conducting a psychodiagnostic study is always subject to a specific goal, which determines the ways of solving individual problems. The main goal of a psychodiagnostic examination of a child with developmental disorders is to identify the structure of a mental disorder in order to determine the optimal ways of corrective assistance. The specific task is determined by the age of the child, the presence or absence of visual, hearing, and musculoskeletal disorders, the social situation, the stage of diagnosis (screening, differential diagnosis, in-depth psychological study of the child to develop an individual correctional program, evaluation of the effectiveness of corrective measures). To obtain informative and objective results of the psychological study of the child, a number of special conditions must be observed: - the methodological apparatus must be adequate to the goals and hypothesis of the study; so, for example, when carrying out a screening study, diagnostic tools should allow the experimenter in the course of a single study to draw a conclusion about the correspondence of the child's mental development to the age norm or about lagging behind it; - it is important to determine which mental functions are supposed to be studied during the examination, - the selection of methods and interpretation of the results depend on this; - the selection of experimental tasks should be carried out on the basis of the principle of integrity, since a detailed psychological characteristic of the child, including the features of his cognitive and personal development, can only be obtained as a result of using several methods that complement each other; - when selecting tasks, it is necessary to provide for a different degree of difficulty in their implementation - this makes it possible to assess the level of the child's actual development and at the same time allows you to find out the highest level of his abilities; 56 - tasks should be selected taking into account the age of the child so that their implementation is accessible and interesting to him; - the content of the tasks should not cause negative reactions in the child, but, on the contrary, should facilitate the establishment of contact with him, which will allow a thorough examination and obtain reliable results; - when selecting tasks, it is necessary to take into account the influence of the child's affective sphere on the results of his activity in order to exclude bias in the interpretation of the results; - the selection of tasks should be as less intuitive and empirical as possible; only scientific character in the selection of methods will increase the reliability of the results obtained; - without excluding the importance of intuition in the development of diagnostic tools, it is necessary to provide for a mandatory theoretical justification for the system of diagnostic tasks; - the number of techniques should be such that the examination of the child does not lead to mental exhaustion; it is necessary to dose the load on the child, taking into account his individual capabilities. When organizing the examination procedure, it is necessary to take into account the following requirements: - the examination procedure must be built in accordance with the characteristics of the child's age: in order to assess the level of development of the child's mental activity, it is necessary to include him in active activities leading to his age; for a child of preschool age, such activity is play, for a schoolchild it is educational; - methods should be convenient for use, have the ability to standardize and mathematically process data, but at the same time take into account not so much quantitative results as the features of the process of completing tasks; - analysis of the obtained results should be qualitative and quantitative; in the works of leading domestic psychologists it is shown that it is a qualitative analysis, implemented through a system of qualitative indicators, that makes it possible to identify the peculiarity of a child’s mental development and its potential, and quantitative assessments are used to determine the severity of a particular qualitative indicator, which facilitates the distinction between norm and pathology, allows you to compare the results obtained in children with different developmental disorders; - the choice of qualitative indicators should not be random, but should be determined by their ability to reflect the levels of formation of mental functions, the violation of which is typical for children with developmental disabilities; 57 - to obtain reliable results, it is important to establish productive contact and mutual understanding between the psychologist and the child; - to optimize the examination procedure, it is necessary to consider the procedure for presenting diagnostic tasks; some researchers (A.Anastasi, V.M. Bleikher and others) consider it appropriate to arrange them in order of increasing complexity - from simple to complex, others (I.A. Korobeinikov, T.V. Rozanova) - to alternate simple and complex tasks to prevent fatigue. Psychodiagnostic study of the child is carried out in several stages. At the first stage, the psychologist studies the documentation and collects information about the child by interviewing parents and teachers. By the beginning of the examination, he must have all the necessary information of a clinical, pedagogical, social nature. This will allow you to correctly determine the objectives of the study and prepare the necessary diagnostic tools. To conduct a psychological examination, you need to create a calm environment. The examination is carried out in a separate room with a small number of objects, so as not to distract the attention of the child. An examination of a child under 4 years old is carried out at a small children's table or on a carpet, with a child of 4-6 years old - at a children's table, older children - at a regular table, on which there should be no foreign objects. It is better to start the survey with tasks that are obviously easy for this child. The psychologist should behave calmly and benevolently, carefully observe all the actions of the child. If the child makes mistakes, then the examiner provides him with assistance, which is provided for in this task. All the results of the observation are recorded in the protocol: the time for completing tasks, the mistakes made by the child, the types of assistance, and its effectiveness are noted. During the examination, the presence of the mother is desirable, especially in cases where the child categorically insists on this. After the examination, the psychologist should discuss the results with the mother, answer her questions, and give recommendations. If for some reason the child behaves badly, refuses to complete the task, then it is necessary to find out the reasons for such behavior and call him for a second examination, which can be carried out in a few days. During these days, you need to prepare the child for a second examination, convince him to cooperate with a psychologist. It is also necessary to invite for a second examination those children who quickly get tired and therefore cannot be fully examined at one time. It is better to prepare a conclusion for a child in two stages. First, the psychologist who conducted the survey processes the results of the tasks, discusses them and comes to certain conclusions about the features and level of development of cognitive activity, speech, emotional-volitional sphere, personality, behavior of the child, and also decides on the nature of corrective assistance that can be given to him. Then the psychologist draws up the results in the form of a written conclusion in a free form, but following certain rules. Usually the conclusion consists of three relatively independent parts. The first part indicates the reasons for the examination of the child, the purpose of the examination, the characteristics of the child's behavior during its conduct. Motivation to complete tasks, features of contact, ways of interacting with a psychologist, ways of completing tasks, nature of activity, reactions to encouragement, failure, remarks are necessarily noted. Particular attention is paid to the child's ability to use help productively, the types of this help, the ability to transfer the method of solution found together with the psychologist to a similar problem. The presence or absence of verbal accompaniment of actions, the nature of the child's statements, his ability to talk about his actions are noted. The second part provides an analysis of the results of a diagnostic study of the child's psyche, depending on the objectives of the study, which determined which mental functions and processes were studied in each particular case. In the third part of the conclusion, a conclusion is made about the structure of mental disorders in a child, and not only the identified violations and their correlation are noted, but also the preserved aspects of the psyche, the potential of the child, which determine its further development. Further, recommendations are formulated on the organization and content of psychological assistance to the child, optimization of the correctional and pedagogical process, which are addressed to specialists of the educational institution and parents. The conclusion must necessarily indicate the age of the subject, the dates of the examination and writing the conclusion, the name of the psychologist. 59 54:: 55:: 56:: 57:: 58:: 59:: Contents Levchenko I.Yu., Zabramnaya S.D., Dobrovolskaya T.A., Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics - M. Academy, 2003. 320 c/B5686Part12-59.html 59::60::61::62:: Contents 3.4.1. Methods of psychological study of children with developmental disorders Observation method The study of natural behavior is one of the advantages of the observation method. Active or passive observation of the child is organized in the classroom, in the game, in free activities, in the kindergarten group or in the classroom, in joint activities with 59 parents, i.e. in a child's natural situation. Using the method of observation, it is possible to identify and evaluate such components of the child's activity as obsessive or stereotyped actions, pronounced affective and emotional reactions, and manifestations of anxiety. Observations allow us to find out how developed the child's self-service skills are, neatness in clothes, how he relates to assignments, what kind of mood background prevails in him, what are the features of his motor development. Such information becomes the basis for the subsequent in-depth study of the child. The method of observation can provide important additional information not only for psychologists, but also for clinicians. Based on the results of the observation, the psychologist, having identified the signs of impaired development, makes assumptions about the qualitative side and the level of the child's problems, which allows him to optimally select diagnostic tools and correctly organize the further psychological study of the child. Observation is a reliable method, does not require special equipment and eliminates the additional psycho-emotional burden of the child. At the same time, the use of this method presupposes that the psychologist has a high level of professional training and a good knowledge of the psychological and pedagogical characteristics of children with various developmental disorders. For an experienced specialist, the method of observation is very important in the process of diagnosis, but a novice psychodiagnostician must verify the information obtained during observation in the course of an experimental psychological study of the child. Observation always begins with goal setting, which helps to define the main parameters of observation. Within the framework of psychological research, the purpose of observation is to study the child as a carrier of certain psychological and pedagogical characteristics and to compare the results of observation with the known signs of developmental disorders in children. The observation procedure varies depending on a number of objective and subjective factors - the contingent of the observed, the nature of the phenomena being studied, etc. The psychologist can be part of the observed group of children, for example, play with them (active observation), or may remain in the position of an outsider watching from the side (passive observation). Significant disadvantages of the observation method are: 1) its duration; 2) subjectivity, which manifests itself in the dependence of the results of observation on the professionalism of a specialist; 3) the impossibility of statistical processing of the results. These shortcomings can be substantially neutralized while maintaining the merits of the method, if the observation is formalized and included in the standardized methodology for studying the child's psychophysical development. In this case, a restriction is introduced on the choice of observed indicators. As a result, all subjects are observed according to a predetermined set of features, the severity of which is assessed by a certain quantitative indicator. In this case, it becomes possible to more clearly and completely compare the results of various observations, subjectivity is excluded, and unity of qualitative and quantitative analyzes of the facts obtained can be achieved. Thus, in the practice of psychodiagnostics, it is rational to use the method of observation included in the method of experiment by introducing qualitative indicators of the manifestation of certain psychophysical characteristics in a child and their quantitative assessment. The method of conversation The conversation involves the receipt by the psychologist of information about the characteristics of the mental development of the child as a result of discussing them with parents (teachers). Often, the initiators of the conversation within the framework of the survey are the parents or teachers themselves, turning to a psychologist for advice. The purpose of the conversation is to exchange views on the mental development of the child, discuss the nature, degree and possible causes of the problems that parents and teachers face in the process of his upbringing and education. Based on the results of the conversation, the psychologist outlines ways for further examination of the child. When conducting a conversation, the psychologist must comply with the following requirements: - the conversation should encourage and maintain interest in parents (teachers); - it is important to think over the organization of space and the choice of time for the conversation; - the effectiveness of the conversation depends on the activity of parents (teachers), therefore, it is necessary to create a trusting relationship between its participants; - the psychologist should not openly criticize the educational actions of parents (teachers); - it is important to prevent parents (teachers) from expecting immediate results based on the results of the conversation; - It is desirable that both parents participate in the conversation; - it is necessary to strive to develop in parents (teachers) real ideas about the psychophysical characteristics of the child and his difficulties; - during the conversation, it is necessary to plan the next meetings and determine their task. 61 Method of questioning teachers (parents) The method of questioning in relation to the problems of child development is carried out using questionnaires, i.e. methods containing questions that parents and teachers must answer in a free form (open type of questionnaire) or choose from the options offered in the questionnaire (closed type). Questionnaires may also contain statements with which the parent or educator may agree or disagree. For example, the questionnaire for educators "Assessment of the characteristics of the development of a child of preschool age", proposed by M.M. Semago, offers an assessment of some of the child's behavioral characteristics using quantitative indicators. It contains 36 statements, grouped into several topics, with which the teacher (parents) must agree or disagree. Each statement can receive one of three ratings: 0 points - this sign of behavior is absent, 1 point - the sign is expressed to an average degree, 2 points - the sign is expressed to a large extent. The examination ends with the calculation of the total number of points. Using this questionnaire, the psychologist, on the basis of the amount of points obtained, can assess the severity of certain behavioral disorders in the child and draw a conclusion about the compliance of his development with the norm. To obtain more reliable information about the child, it is advisable to include conversations with parents and teachers in the examination procedure. Method of experimental study of the child This method is more "young" than the method of observation. When using it, it is possible to repeat the research procedure many times; statistical data processing is carried out; it takes less time to complete. The experimental method involves the collection of facts in specially created conditions that ensure the active manifestation of the phenomena under study. The experiment is carried out using specially selected experimental techniques. Their choice and number are determined by the task that the researcher needs to solve with the obligatory consideration of the requirements for organizing and conducting an experimental study of the child's mental development. Let's dwell on this in more detail. 62 59:: 60:: 61:: 62:: Contents Levchenko I.Yu., Zabramnaya S.D., Dobrovolskaya T.A., Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics - M. Academy, 2003. 320 s / B5686Part13-62. html 62::63::64::65::66::67::68::69::70::71::72::73::74::75::76::77::78 :: 79:: 80:: 81:: 82:: 83:: Contents 3.4.2. Experimental psychological study of children with developmental disorders The experimental psychological approach is the most traditional in the psychodiagnostics of impaired development. He 62 involves the study of a child with developmental disabilities in the course of a psychological experiment. A psychological experiment is the study of disturbed mental processes and personality in specially created conditions that ensure the maximum manifestation of existing disorders. The pathopsychological experiment is carried out with the help of specific methods for studying mental functions - experimental psychological methods. A variety of experimental psychological methods, tested by many years of practice in the clinic and special education, are described in the works of S.Ya. Rubinstein, B.V. Zeigarnik, S.D. Zabramnaya, E.A. Strebeleva and others. When organizing an experiment, it is important to observe the following rules: - the experiment should simulate the mental activity carried out by the child in the game, in work, study, communication; - the experiment should help to reveal the structure of not only disturbed, but also remaining intact mental functions; - the construction of experimental techniques should provide the psychologist with the opportunity to take into account the search for solutions by the child being examined, as well as intervene in his activities in order to find out how he perceives help and whether he can use it; - experimental psychological techniques should be aimed at revealing the qualitative characteristics of mental disorders; - the results of an experimental psychological study must be accurately and objectively recorded in the protocol. The construction of an experimental psychological examination of a child with developmental disorders is distinguished by a variety and a large number of methods used, which makes it possible to identify various disorders and their correlation. When interpreting the results, it is necessary to compare the data obtained by different methods. The program of experimental psychological research cannot be standard, it depends on the task and characteristics of the subject. For example, in the differential diagnosis of schizophrenia, the focus will be on the study of thought disorders. In this case, the methods "Classification of objects", "Pictograms", etc. will be selected for the examination. When studying a patient with the consequences of a craniocerebral injury, special attention should be paid to the study of mental performance, memory, the identification of disorders of praxis, writing, counting, i.e. the choice of methods will be different. Particular attention should be paid to the selection of methods for the psychological examination of the child. In this case, the choice is determined by the age of the child, the social conditions of his upbringing (family, orphanage, long-term deprivation), the level of his intellectual development, the presence or absence of speech, motor or sensory disorders. A specific feature of the psychological study of children is the use of a teaching experiment. As is known, with the help of ascertaining research methods it is impossible to obtain a long-term prognosis of a child's development. Nominated by L.S. Vygotsky's position that learning leads to development led to the creation of various versions of the learning experiment, which make it possible to more objectively predict the development of the child. In some versions of the learning experiment, the elements of learning are included in the process of the psychological experiment itself, in others, there is a combination of a stating experiment, more often a test one, with training aimed at obtaining new knowledge and skills, mainly in special areas, allowing the child to be professionally oriented. With such a research scheme (test - training - test), the effect of training receives a certain quantitative expression. It is clear that the more extensive the learning process itself is, the more information the psychologist receives about the difficulties and possibilities of a sick child, the more meaningful his corrective recommendations and prognostic assessment. However, the most informative, as a rule, are the more labor-intensive methods of the teaching experiment. Therefore, such studies are possible only in special diagnostic groups. Especially for the study of the potential of children 7 - 10 years old A.Ya. Ivanova proposed a methodology for a learning experiment. The fulfillment of the tasks of this technique also causes difficulties in normally developing children. At the same time, experimental learning to complete a task does not require school knowledge. This makes it possible to use the technique in cases where the child does not cope with the school curriculum or has not yet studied. The technique involves the use of two sets of geometric shapes, different in color, shape, size. A set of three colors, four shapes and two sizes is used for the main task, and a set of four colors and three shapes is used for a similar task. The child is invited to arrange the cards according to one attribute (in the main task, this is the color, then the shape, then the size). In case of difficulty, he is provided with training assistance, after which a similar task is presented. Several options for completing the task are possible: - complete transfer in verbal form - the child names all three signs; 64 - partial transfer in verbal form - the child identifies and names at least two signs; - complete transfer in actions - the child performs three correct groupings, but does not name them (this is often noted in children with speech disorders); - partial transfer in actions - the child carries out at least two correct groupings; - there is no transfer - the child highlights one feature or does not highlight any of the features of the figures of the second set. The evaluation of the results is carried out according to three criteria: 1) orientation activity, which in healthy children is active and is disturbed with reduced mental performance and mental underdevelopment; 2) the ability to accept help. The assessment is made according to the number of lessons-tips received by the child. Healthy children require from 1 to 5, mentally retarded - up to 20; 3) the child's ability to give verbal formulations of the sign on the basis of which he performed the tasks. When conducting a psychological examination of a child, a learning experiment can be organized using other methods: "Subject classification", "Exclusion of an inappropriate object", "Koos Cubes". This is especially important if the psychologist is limited in time, for example, at the PMPK. In this case, it is appropriate to use the "Unsuitable item exclusion" technique. Teaching a child to exclude an extra object and performing a similar task takes 2-3 minutes. The main experimental psychological methods are described by S.Ya. Rubinshtein in her work "Experimental methods of pathopsychology and the experience of their application in the clinic" (1970). Among them, such methods as "Kohs Cubes", "Exclusion of an inappropriate object", "Sequence of events", "Indirect memorization according to Leontiev", "Pictogram", etc. have gained particular popularity. Many of these methods have modifications for different age groups. Some techniques are adapted for people with analyzer impairments. It should be borne in mind that with the help of each of the experimental methods, material can be obtained that makes it possible to judge various features of the psyche. For example, "Pictogram" allows you to draw conclusions about the state of memory, about abstract thinking, personal characteristics. There are few methods aimed at studying only one process. This is very important to consider when selecting tasks for examining a child. The psychologist is obliged to master all experimental psychological methods, since they are the main methods for studying disturbed mental activity. 65 An important condition for the use of experimental psychological techniques is the provision of dosed assistance to the child during the examination. Various types of such assistance are described in the works of S.Ya. Rubinstein: - simple questioning, i.e. a request to repeat a particular word, as this draws the child's attention to what was said or done; - approval or stimulation of further actions, for example, "good", "next"; - questions about why the subject did this or that action (such questions help him clarify his own thoughts); - leading questions or critical objections of the experimenter; - hint, advice to act in one way or another; - demonstration of the action and a request to repeat it yourself; - learning how to do the job. When describing individual techniques, indications are usually given as to what types of assistance are appropriate in this case. The choice of adequate methods of assistance remains one of the difficult aspects of experimental work, requiring experience and qualifications. The general rules to be followed in this regard are as follows: - First, you should check whether simpler types of assistance will be effective, and only then move on to demonstration and training; - the experimenter should not be overly active and verbose; his intervention in the course of the experiment must be carefully considered; - each act of assistance, as well as the response of the child, must be recorded in the protocol. Description of some experimental psychological methods for examining children and adolescents Folding the pyramid Folding the pyramid is used to identify the state of visual-effective thinking. To carry out the experiment, it is necessary to have several pyramids, consisting of 4, 6, 8 rings and a cap. The child is shown a pyramid (the number of rings depends on age) and is offered to disassemble it, accompanying the instructions with an appropriate gesture. If the child does not start work, the experimenter himself dismantles the pyramid and asks the child to assemble it. If the child, having begun to act, collects the pyramid in disorder, he is not stopped until the end of the work, then they say "Wrong" and the work begins anew. The experimenter draws the child's attention to the largest ring and invites him to put this ring on the rod. If the child does not continue the work himself, the experimenter does it, putting on the next, smaller ring, and continues in this way until the entire pyramid is folded. Then the experimenter once again invites the child to disassemble and fold the pyramid himself, no longer interfering with the work. The protocol notes the composition of the pyramid, the explanations and actions of the experimenter, the actions of the child, his verbal statements; whether the child immediately accepts the task, his first actions, when he begins to fold the pyramid, taking into account the size of the rings. The way the child works is noted (puts on the rings not in accordance with their size, does not correct the mistake himself; compares the rings in size, not yet putting them on the rod, applying them to each other; visually correlates them, putting on all the rings right at once). Based on the analysis of the protocol, a conclusion is made whether the child is learning a mode of action. A child with a preserved intellect, as a rule, performs this task right away. Chaotic manipulations with rings, performing the task by trial and error with repeated self-folding of the pyramid most often indicate a decrease in intelligence. Folding split pictures The technique is used to identify the state of visual-figurative thinking. This technique does not require the participation of the child's speech, therefore, it can be used to examine speechless children. To conduct the experiment, it is necessary to have split pictures of varying difficulty: from the simplest, divided into two parts, to those consisting of 4-5-6 parts of various configurations (the complexity of the proposed pictures is determined by the age of the subject). Most of the pictures are on a rectangular background, which makes it easier to draw up a picture, outlining its boundaries. Complicating the task is not only the number of parts and the configuration of the cut, but also the image of pictures on both sides of the rectangle. The reference point for such split pictures is primarily the background color. A one-sided sectional picture can be offered, which shows only the outline of an object (a car, a bear, a doll, etc.). An even more complex option is a drawing separated from the background, i.e. cut along the contour and cut into 4 - 5 parts. 67 First, the child is asked to fold a three-part picture on a rectangular background. Parts of the picture are placed in disorder on the table in front of the child and, without naming the object depicted in the picture, they offer: "Add the whole picture." If the child does not know where to start, the experimenter himself folds one main part and encourages the child to continue working. If the child again acts incorrectly, erratically, the experimenter folds the picture himself, draws the subject's attention to it, mixes the parts of the picture again and suggests: "Now fold it yourself." After the preliminary completion of the task (on their own or with the help of the experimenter), the child is given a cut picture of 4-5 parts and the instruction: "Fold it yourself." The experimenter does not interfere in the course of work. But first he gives instructions: "Here is a rooster. Fold the whole rooster." The protocol notes the name and composition of the picture, the experimenter's explanations, the child's actions and his verbal statements. The researcher obtains the main facts by analyzing the method of action that the child uses in the process of folding the picture. These can be chaotic, purposeless manipulations, purposeful actions in a visual-effective plan (trial and error method) and purposeful completion of a task in a visual-figurative plan (visual correlation). An inadequate method of action is expressed in the fact that the child works chaotically, putting parts of the drawing without a specific goal. For example, a tail is attached to the head of an animal, sometimes it “gets stuck” on the layout made, and arranges all other parts of the drawing as it should. If a child stubbornly refuses to accept the experimenter's help, and even after repeated visual demonstration, cannot put the picture together correctly, this cannot but raise doubts about his intellectual development. "Segen Boards" This technique can be applied to the study of visual-effective thinking. Boards with grooves of various geometric shapes and corresponding tabs are used (there are variants of these boards of varying complexity). An elementary board of four tabs is available for presentation to children from the age of two. The most common version of the Segen board (out of 10 tabs) is presented to children over three years old. The difficulty lies in the fact that some of the grooves can only be filled with a combination of several tabs. Methodology for conducting the experiment: the experimenter shows the child a board with laid tabs, then pours them out and offers to return them with gestures. 68 Difficulties in completing tasks indicate shortcomings in visual perception and an insufficient level of formation of visual-effective thinking. "Subject Tabs" In structure, this method is close to the method of "Segen's Boards". During the experiment, a large board is used, which depicts 10 different situations with missing elements in place of cut grooves, and tabs with drawings depicting these or intentionally inappropriate elements. The child must choose from a large number of tabs appropriate in meaning. When evaluating the results of this task, attention is drawn to how the child comprehends the situations depicted on the board, how focused and stable his attention is. Of considerable interest is the observation of the way the child works. The first way: the child, picking up any tab, looks for a place for it. This method is irrational and unproductive. The second, more perfect way: the child, having comprehended the situation, searches among the tabs for exactly the element that is needed. Intellectually full-fledged children (5-6 years old) are able to correctly understand the situation and select the appropriate tab. It should be noted that they cannot always use a more rational way of working on their own. However, with a guiding indication from the experimenter, this method is assimilated. The technique also makes it possible to identify the purposefulness of activities with a large amount of work. Children who have insufficient attention span, even with a good ability to comprehend, often find it difficult to complete this task, as they are not able to cover all the situations depicted and make a choice from a large number of tabs. If limiting the volume of work (some situations are closed and the number of tabs presented is reduced) leads to an improvement in its quality, then we can conclude that the cause of the errors was not comprehension difficulties, but a narrowing of the scope of perception. "Mailbox" This method is widely used to examine children of different ages. It is used to study visual-effective thinking, allowing you to identify the child's ability to comprehend a new mode of action. "Mailbox" is a box with a removable lid. The lid has slots of various configurations. Multi-colored figurines (each in two copies) repeat the shape of the slot on the lid of the box with their base. 69 This technique does not require verbal responses from the child in the process of implementation, therefore it is very convenient in working with non-verbal children. The instruction, depending on the age of the subject, can be given in several versions: verbal (“Here are different figures. Put all the figures into this box”) or visual (the experimenter shows the performance on two or three figures). For a child with normal intelligence 6 years and older, this task is not difficult and is performed by visually correlating the shape of the base of the figure with the shape of the slot. In some cases, children resort to trying on (as a rule, in relation to two figures: a triangle and a semicircle, which require a certain turn). The choice of figurines by such children is usually carried out in a certain system: for example, dropping a square into the "box", the child then takes an identical figurine. Children with intellectual disabilities at the age of 7-8 rarely act by visual correlation, they are more typical of the path of trial and error. Koos technique This technique is aimed at identifying constructive praxis, the ability for spatial orientation, the analysis of the figure (according to the drawing) and its subsequent synthesis (from cubes). Koos cubes (16 pieces) have the same coloring: blue, red, yellow, white, white-red and yellow-blue sides. The set contains 18 drawings with images of figures of different (gradually increasing) complexity, made up of 4, 9 or all 16 cubes. The technique is used to study children of various ages (from 5 years and older), depending on the purpose of the study. It can be modified into a "learning experiment" or used as a material for researching the level of claims. The child is given cubes and one of the drawings and is asked to make the figure shown in the drawing out of the cubes. It is advisable to start with lighter drawings. It is possible to carry out diagnostic "training" according to a special scheme, using certain drawings and a system of dosed prompts for them. It is permissible to use the repetition of tasks of individual drawings: during "training" a similar drawing is presented for independent execution. A good technique is to re-execute the same drawing without a sample, only according to the visual representation. This technique allows you to identify the child's capabilities in relation to the performance of such mental operations as analysis and synthesis on the material of constructive, non-speech activity. This is a particularly important criterion in those cases where the child does not speak, does not understand or hear speech addressed to him, or for some other reason refuses verbal contact with an adult. The technique also helps to identify special spatial disturbances that occur in certain forms of brain damage (localized skull injuries, tumors, partial damage to cerebral vessels). As a rule, the presentation of this task arouses interest in almost all children, which makes it possible to identify their reactions to success and failure. Establishing the sequence of events The technique is designed to identify the possibility of establishing spatio-temporal and cause-and-effect relationships based on a series of plot pictures. To conduct the survey, it is necessary to have several series of plot pictures, each of which consists of three to five pictures and reflects some event of a simple plot. Series of varying degrees of difficulty are selected: from the easiest to those in which there is a missing link. It is desirable to have pictures in colors, since color images are perceived by children more easily than black and white ones, and cause more emotional interest. The child is shown a pack of mixed, pre-numbered pictures: “Here is one story in the pictures. Find how it all started, what happened then, how it ended. Put all the pictures in order (simultaneously show with a gesture). Put the first picture here, here the second ... and put the last picture here." Pictures mixed in disorder are laid out in front of the child: "Look at the pictures and start laying them out." The protocol records all the actions of the child: how he looks at the pictures, how he starts to act (purposefully or chaotically, without thinking about the next picture), whether he notices mistakes and corrects them or does not pay attention to them and continues to lay out further, whether he looks through the entire layout again after its completion, etc. After the end of the layout, the experimenter writes down the resulting sequence in the protocol. If the child immediately completed the task correctly, he is offered another, more complex, series with a brief instruction: "These pictures have a different story. Put all the pictures in order" (gesture). If the pictures are laid out incorrectly, they proceed to the second stage in the same series. "You arranged it incorrectly (the experimenter chooses the first picture). Here is the first picture. Put it here (lays the rest in disorder in front of the child). And put these pictures (gesture) in order." 71 If the child has completed the task correctly, he is given a similar series of pictures in order to check whether he can apply the learned method of action. If the series is not decomposed, start the next stage. The experimenter tells the whole plot, emphasizing the words "before", "then", accompanying his story with sequential laying out of pictures. Then he shuffles the pictures again and invites the child to put them in order. If everything is done correctly, the child is offered a similar series of pictures, if not, they repeat the previous step again, trying to get the correct layout. Additional explanations according to the scheme of the fourth stage must be recorded in the protocol. When evaluating the performance of the task, the main attention is paid to the amount of help (hint steps) the child needs to get the correct result, how he accepts it, and the possibility of "transfer". Approximate series of consecutive pictures for younger children: "Wolves", "Boats", "Well", "Dog-orderly", "Crows", "Spring has come", "Boy and dog", "Fox and crow", "Sly little mouse" "," Hare and carrot "," On the ice floe ". Classification of objects The method of subject classification is used to study the processes of generalization and abstraction. It consists in the distribution of objects into groups depending on their similarities and differences. In addition, the use of this method makes it possible to identify the features of attention, personal reactions of the subject to their successes and failures. To conduct research, you must have a set of 70 cards, which depict a variety of objects and living beings. To obtain reliable data, you should use a standard set of cards. The method of classifying objects is used both for the study of adults and children (from 6 years old). Depending on the age of the subject, a part of the cards with images of objects unfamiliar to them (measuring instruments, teaching aids) is excluded from the general set, or a small number of cards (20 pieces) are selected, distributing them into simple groups well known to children. For the simplest version of the technique, a set of 25 pictures is required. Always in the same order, 20 pre-numbered pictures are offered: apple, sofa, goat, horse, table, child, bicycle, cart, plums, woman, steamer, closet, dog, watermelon, sailor, whatnot, blacksmith, cat, plane , pear. 72 Five unnumbered orientation cards are placed in front of the child: skier, bed, truck, cherry, sheep. They show the child a pack of pictures: "We will sort these pictures into groups - what goes with what." Then they show the child the first picture - an apple: "Where will we put the apple?". With difficulty in speech, the child can show with a gesture. If he shows correctly, the experimenter approves: "That's right, put it on the cherry. It's fruit." (The generalizing concept is given by the experimenter himself.) If the subject's attempt fails, the experimenter explains himself: "Put it on the cherry, it's fruit." Then they show the second picture - a sofa - with the same question: "Where do we put the sofa?". If the decision is incorrect, the experimenter again explains that this picture should be placed next to the bed, since it is furniture. The experimenter continues to lay out and explain, giving generalized concepts until the child begins to lay out himself. The protocol notes the number of the picture with which the child begins to correctly correlate objects according to a generalized feature (the numbering of the pictures makes it easier to record in the protocol). These records make it possible to better understand the features of the processes of analysis and synthesis, to understand whether the child can establish a generalized connection between objects or whether he combines them according to specific characteristics. Since the survey is in the nature of a learning experiment, the number of steps required to assimilate the principle of operation and the possibility of applying this principle in further work of the same kind (i.e. "transfer") become decisive in data analysis. The protocol notes the numbers of the pictures, the questions and explanations of the experimenter, the actions of the child, his questions and statements. This version of the technique in children with primary intact intelligence does not cause difficulties. In most cases, after joint analysis of two or three (sometimes one) pictures, children grasp the principle of classification and then do the work on their own without errors or with single errors. Exclusion of an inappropriate subject (fourth extra) The technique is designed to study the ability to make generalizations and give a logical explanation for their correctness. In some teaching aids, this technique is called a simplified version of the method for classifying objects. An important condition for the application of the methodology is the verbal justification of the choice. With regard to children with speech disorders, a one-word answer, with explanatory gestures, is allowed if this gives the experimenter the opportunity to understand the principle that guided the child. When examining children who, due to 73 speech defects, cannot explain their choice, this method has a more limited application. To conduct the experiment, you must have a set of cards graded according to the degree of difficulty. Four items are drawn on each card, three of which are united by one general concept, and the fourth item does not fit this concept. For example: pocket watch, table lamp, alarm clock, five-kopeck coin; kerosene lamp, electric light bulb, sun, candles, etc. You can also make sets yourself, but be sure to observe the peculiarities of the selection and design of cards (non-fixed position of the "extra" item, the inclusion of color drawings). All cards that will be offered to the child are arranged in advance in order of increasing complexity and stacked on the table. The instruction is given on the example of the lightest card: "Four objects are drawn here. Three objects are similar, they can be called in one word. But one object does not fit them. Find which one?". If the child immediately identifies the object correctly, he is asked to explain: "Why is this object not suitable? How can these objects be called in one word?". If the child's answer is incorrect, the experimenter analyzes the first picture together with him, gives a designation to three objects and explains why the fourth object should be excluded. The next card, which is the same in difficulty as the first, is presented to the child with a shorter instruction: "Here, too, one object does not fit the others. Look, what needs to be removed here?" If the task is completed correctly, they ask: "Why is it not suitable? How can I call these three items in one word?". If the subject is excluded incorrectly, the motivation of the child is clarified with the help of a question. Then he is told what he did wrong, and the detailed analysis is repeated with him on the example of this card. The protocol notes the number of the card, the experimenter's questions and comments, the object to be excluded, the child's explanations, and the generalizing word. "Searching for numbers" The technique is used to identify the speed of orienting-search movements of the gaze and determine the amount of attention in relation to visual stimuli. Suitable only for the study of children who know numbers. To conduct the experiment, you need to have five Schulte tables, which are tablets (60 × 90 cm), on which 74 random numbers from 1 to 25 are written. On each of the five tables, the numbers are arranged differently. In addition, you need a stopwatch and a small (30 cm) pointer. The experiment can be carried out with children studying in the second grade of a mass school or in the fourth grade of a special correctional school of the eighth type. The child is briefly shown a table, saying: "Here on this table, the numbers from 1 to 25 are not in order." Then the table is turned over and placed on the table. After that, the instructions continue: "You will have to show and call out loud all the numbers in order from 1 to 25 with this pointer. Try to do this as quickly and without errors as possible. Do you understand?". If the child does not understand the task, it is repeated. The table is not opened. Then the experimenter puts the table vertically at a distance of 70 - 75 cm from the child, says: "Start" and at the same time turns on the stopwatch. The child points to the numbers and calls them, and the experimenter monitors the correctness of his actions. When the child reaches "25", the experimenter stops the stopwatch. Then the child is offered to show and name the numbers in the same way on the second, third, fourth, fifth tables. When evaluating the results, first of all, differences in the amount of time that the child spends looking for numbers become noticeable. For practically healthy children, 30 - 50 s is enough for one table (most often 40 - 42 s). A noticeable increase in the time to look for numbers in the last (fourth and fifth) tables indicates the child's fatigue, and a decrease indicates a slow "working in". Normally, each table takes approximately the same time. A test for the combination of signs (according to V.M. Kogan) The technique is used to study the mental performance of children and adolescents. To conduct the study, you need a cardboard board measuring 40x40 cm, divided into 64 cells. Each of the seven cells (except the first on the left) of the upper row contains one (uncolored) geometric figure (square, triangle, circle, etc.). In each of the seven cells (except the top one) of the vertical row (on the left), one bright colored stroke was made (red, blue, green, brown, blue, orange, yellow). On separate cards (there are 49 of them) different figures are depicted. Their colors and shapes correspond to the colors and shapes shown on the board. The experiment consists of four stages, each of which has its own instructions. The cards are carefully shuffled. The instruction for the first stage (simple counting): "Count these cards aloud, putting them one by one on the table." The experimenter shows how to do it. While the child is counting, the experimenter uses a stopwatch to note in the protocol the time spent on counting every 10 cards (there are only 9 at the end) and on the entire count. Instructions for the second step (recounting by color): "Now you must also count these cards aloud and at the same time sort them into groups by color." The minutes record the time spent on every 10 cards and on the entire recount. The instruction at the third stage (counting with sorting according to shape): "Count the same cards aloud and at the same time sort them not by color, but by shape." The experimenter still records the elapsed time. Instructions at the fourth stage (counting on the basis of color and shape with cards laid out in free cells): "You must find a place for each card on this table, taking into account the color and shape. At the same time, keep counting - counting the cards." The same time indicators are recorded in the protocol. If necessary, the experimenter can accompany the verbal instruction with a demonstration. At the end of the experiment, the psychologist is left with the following table (see protocol form). The time spent in each step is denoted B1, B2, B3, B4, for example: B1 = 52 s. The coefficients D and K are calculated according to time indicators. The coefficient D (attention deficit) is defined as the difference between the time spent on the fourth stage of work and the sum of the time spent on the second and third stages. It is determined by the formula D \u003d B4 - (B2 + B3). Protocol form F.I. Age Date of examination Stages Time spent on recounting cards (1, 2, 3, 4, … 49) Errors 1. Simple reaction 2. Color sorting 3. Shape sorting 4. Combination Indicators: Total time K Curve of errors Type of curve of errors 76 The coefficient D indicates the ability to combine features, a deficit of voluntary attention and, in particular, indicates the difficulties in the distribution of attention. The coefficient K (workability) is determined by the formula K \u003d D: B4. This indicator allows you to evaluate how the subject learns the principle of work. The higher the coefficient K, the faster the subject learned the principles of the task. Time indicators (in seconds) for completing tasks according to the method of V.M. Kogan healthy children: Age of children В1 В2 В3 В4 D K 7 - 8 years old 67 99 129 301 72 0.2 9 - 10 years old 47 83 101 250 65 0.2 1 1 - 12 years old 41 72 86 198 39 0.2 13 - 14 years old 42 63 76 168 23 0.1 Learning 10 words This is one of the most commonly used methods. It was proposed by A.R. Luria and is used to assess the state of memory, study fatigue, attention activity. No special equipment is required, but more than with other techniques, silence is a prerequisite. Before starting the examination, the experimenter must write in one line a series of short (monosyllabic and disyllabic) words - simple, different in meaning and having no connection with each other. Usually each experimenter habitually uses any one row of words. It is better to use several sets so that children cannot know them from each other. In this experiment, a very high accuracy of pronunciation of words and the immutability of the instructions are required. The instruction consists of several steps. First explanation: "Now I will read 10 words. You must listen carefully. When you finish reading, immediately repeat as many as you remember. You can repeat in any order. The order does not matter. Do you understand?" The experimenter reads the words slowly and clearly. When the subject repeats the words, the experimenter puts crosses in front of them in his protocol (see protocol form). The experimenter then continues the instruction (second stage). Continuation of the instruction: "Now I will read the same words again, and you must repeat them - both those that you have already named and those that you missed the first time - all together in any order." The experimenter again puts crosses in front of the words that the subject reproduced. 77 Protocol form F.I. Age Date of examination Words 1st time 2nd time 3rd time 4th time 5th time After 50 - 60 minutes House Cat Forest Grain Needle Bridge Bread Window Brother Honey Then the experiment is repeated again 3, 4 and 5 times, but without any instructions. The experimenter simply says, "One more time." If the subject names extra words, the experimenter writes them down next to the crosses, and if these words are repeated, he puts the crosses opposite. If the child tries to insert any replicas during the experiment, the experimenter stops him. No conversations are allowed during the experiment. After repeating five times, the experimenter proceeds to other experiments, and at the end of the study, i.e. after about 50 - 60 minutes, again asks to reproduce these words (without a reminder). In order not to be mistaken, it is better to mark these repetitions not with crosses, but with circles. Based on the results of the study, a graph "Memorization curve" is drawn up. According to the shape of the curve, some conclusions can be drawn regarding the features of memorization. It has been established that in healthy school-age children the "memorization curve" is approximately the following: 5, 7, 9, or 6, 8, 9, or 5, 7, 10 words, i.e. by the third repetition, the subject reproduces 9 or 10 words; with subsequent repetitions (at least 5 times in total), the number of reproduced words is 9–10. Children with organic brain damage reproduce a relatively smaller number of words. They can name extra words and "get stuck" on this mistake. Such repeated "superfluous" words, according to the observations of individual psychologists, are found in the study of 78 sick children suffering from current organic diseases of the brain. Especially many of these "superfluous" words are produced by children in a state of disinhibition. The "memorization curve" may indicate both a weakening of active attention and pronounced fatigue. So, for example, sometimes a child reproduces 8 or 9 words for the second time, and during subsequent tests he remembers them less and less. Such a student usually suffers from forgetfulness and absent-mindedness. Forgetfulness is based on transient asthenia, exhaustion of attention. The "memorization curve" in these cases does not necessarily fall sharply down, sometimes it has a zigzag appearance, which indicates the instability of attention and its fluctuations. In separate, relatively rare cases, children each time reproduce the same number of the same words, i.e. the curve has a "plateau" shape. Such stability indicates emotional lethargy, lack of interest in remembering more. A low-lying "plateau" type curve is observed in dementia with apathy (with paralytic syndromes). The number of words retained in memory and reproduced by the subject an hour after the repetition is more indicative of memory in the narrow sense of the word. Using different, but equal in difficulty, sets of words, this experiment can be repeated in order to take into account the effectiveness of therapy, assess the dynamics of the disease, etc. Indirect memorization (according to A.N. Leontiev) For the experiment, it is necessary to have sets of images of objects (pictures) and a set of words. First option (6 - Helmet) A set of cards: a sofa, a mushroom, a cow, a washbasin, a table, a branch, a strawberry, a felt-tip pen, an airplane, a tree, a watering can, a house, a flower, notebooks, a telegraph pole, a key, bread, a tram, a window, a glass , bed, carriage, electric table lamp, picture in a frame, field, cat. Words to remember: light, dinner, forest, teaching, hammer, clothes, field, game, bird, horse, road, night, mouse, milk, chair. The second option (after 10 years) A set of cards: a towel, a chair, an inkwell, a bicycle, a clock, a globe, a pencil, the sun, a glass, a dining set, a comb, a plate, a mirror, felt-tip pens (2 pcs. ), a tray, a bakery, factory chimneys, a jug, a fence, a dog, children's pants, a room, socks and shoes, a penknife, a goose, a street lamp, a horse, a rooster, a black board (school), a shirt. 79 Words to remember: rain, meeting, fire, grief, day, fight, detachment, theater, mistake, strength, meeting, answer, holiday, neighbor, work. All the cards are laid out in rows in front of the child in any order, but so that they are visible to him. Then they say: “You will need to remember a series of words. To make it easier to do this, every time I name a word, you need to choose a card that will later help you remember the word. Here, for example, is the first word that needs to be remembered. .. (depending on what option is offered, it could be the word "rain"). Rain is not drawn anywhere here, but you can choose a card that will help you remember this word. After the child chooses a card, it is put aside. Then, after 40 minutes or an hour, i.e. before the end of the study (after any other experiments have been done), the child is randomly shown one card at a time and asked to remember which word it was selected to memorize. At the same time, they always ask how they managed to remember or how this card reminded them of the rain. If the child starts work reluctantly, then such questions can be asked after the presentation of the third and fourth words. All selected cards are set aside. Then, after 40 minutes, i.e. before the end of the study (after any other experiments have been done), the child is randomly shown one card at a time and asked to remember which word this card was selected to memorize. And again they ask how they managed to remember or how this card reminded the corresponding word. When analyzing the results, it is taken into account that there can be no right or wrong choice. The nature of the connection that the subject established between the word and the image on the card is analyzed. From the age of 6 to 7, mediated memorization prevails over direct memorization. With age, this gap increases even more in favor of mediated memorization. By the age of 15, healthy children can reproduce all 100% of the material presented. Children with impaired working capacity memorize material much better with mediated memorization, since the semantic connection creates additional "reference milestones" for them. Children with a violation of purposeful thinking often cannot remember a single word (pictures are called during reproduction, not words), since even during the formation of a connection they "lose" the main goal of the work - the need to connect the choice of a picture with the subsequent reproduction of a word. Here is an example of the protocol of one of the surveys. 80 Protocol of examination of mediated memorization of Katya, 8 years old (according to A.N. Leontiev) F.I. Age Date of study Word Selected card Explanation of connection Reproduced word Explanation Light Lamp Lamp shines Light bulb Like the sun Lunch Bread When they eat, they take bread Eat - Forest Mushroom Mushrooms grow in the forest Forest - Teaching Notebook When you study, you write Write - Hammer Shovel Similar Scoop - Clothes Bed Also made of matter Bed Sleeping Field Field It is depicted Field - Game Cat with a ball Playing with a ball Playing - Bird Cow Same animal Animal - Horse Crew Carrying a horse Horse - Road Car Rides on the road Sand Rides on sand Night House Sleep at night in the house - - Mouse Picture It's as if there is a mouse Hedgehog Hedgehog Milk Glass Pour Milk into a glass - Chair Sofa They are sitting Chair - Katya picked up pictures for words at an average pace. For two words, when presented with a card, he cannot remember the corresponding word, but names the image on it. Such errors testify to the lack of the ability to retain mediated connections in memory and the impossibility of remembering by associations. The explanation of connections is broken in 7 (!) words. This means that the process of establishing indirect ties is difficult, and the ties themselves are fragile. The technique confirms that the processes of semantic memory (preservation and, consequently, reproduction) are disturbed in the girl. 81 Pictogram The technique can be successfully used in military or forensic psychiatric examination. In recent years, attempts have been made to use this technique to study the youngest children, using the words and phrases available to them. To conduct the experiment, you need clean paper and pencils (plain and colored). In the sets of words and phrases prepared for the experiment, simple concepts can alternate with more complex, abstract ones, for example, "delicious dinner", "hard work", "happiness", "development", "sadness", etc. The child is explained that his memory will be tested (one might say - "visual memory"). To memorize individual phrases, he must, without writing down anything, draw something that will help him remember the given word. The first expressions chosen from the easier ones can be used for a detailed explanation, clarification of the instructions, even showing if the child has difficulty understanding the instructions. In the course of work, it is advisable to ask the child to give explanations for the idea, details, content of the drawing. Whatever connections and drawings the child makes, disapproval should not be expressed. Only when the drawings are too multi-subject, and the child himself is more interested in the process of drawing than in choosing a connection for memorization, can he be somewhat limited in time. An hour later, the child is asked to remember the given words in a row. You can name words from the pictures and make captions to them. Sometimes the child may be provided with the necessary assistance. When evaluating the results of the experiment, first of all, the number of correctly reproduced words is calculated in relation to the total number of words presented for memorization. These data can be compiled with the results of direct learning (according to the "Learning 10 words" method). The most valuable data is the analysis of children's drawings. Everything can be important here: the way you hold a pencil and draw lines, the pressure on the pencil, the location of the drawings on the plane of the sheet, the choice of color, etc. But of course, the analysis of the content of the drawings themselves is most important. They reflect the stock of knowledge and ideas of the child, the features of his individual life experience. The drawings reflect the children's ability to be distracted, etc. For example, we will give the protocol of one examination (see p. 83). In this section, only some experimental psychological methods are given. You can get acquainted with them in more detail in the specialized literature (S.Ya. Rubinshtein, M.I. Kononova, S.D. Zabramnaya, M.M. Semago). 82 Protocol of examination according to the method "Pictogram" F.I. Age Date of study Word Latent time, s Figure Explanation Reproduction Dark night 6 Shaded square A square and everything is shaded. Shaded - it means dark, night Dark night Happy holiday 52 Check box During the holidays there is a demonstration. They go to the demonstration with flags Holiday Justice 2.05 (Refusal, additional request) Warrior with a gun Warrior standing on the border is fair work Justice Despair 1.43 A coffin with a human body Well, death causes despair in loved ones Despair Delicious dinner 7 Plate A plate, well, at least with salad Dinner Illness 10 Bed A person lies on the bed when he can do nothing Illness Envy 2.36 Trough, necklace, chain Well, the envy of an old woman from a folk tale Envy Fear 27 Barely noticeable touches Thunderstorm is very scary Fear Development - (Rejection, additional request, refusal) - - 83 62:: 63:: 64:: 65:: 66:: 67:: 68:: 69:: 70:: 71:: 72:: 73: : 74:: 75:: 76:: 77:: 78:: 79:: 80:: 81:: 82:: 83:: Contents Levchenko I. Yu., Zabramnaya S.D., Dobrovolskaya T.A., Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics - M. Academy, 2003. 320 s / B5686Part14-83.html 83:: 84:: 85:: 86:: 87:: 88 :: 89:: 90:: Contents 3.4.3. Tests Another direction in the study of children and adolescents with developmental disabilities is the metric approach, which involves the quantitative measurement of certain indicators of mental development. This approach is carried out using tests. 83 Tests are standard sets of tasks and materials that the examinee works with. The procedure for presenting tasks is also standard: they are given in a certain sequence, the time of execution and the evaluation of the results of the regulations are rovanny. In connection with testing, it is necessary to dwell on two concepts - reliability and validity - related to psychodiagnostic methods. The reliability of a test is the independence of its results from the action of various random factors (such as testing conditions, the personality of the experimenter and the subject, previous testing experience or lack of it, etc.). The validity of the test is the correspondence of the information received to the measured mental property or process. Wexler's test In the practice of examining both children and adults, the D. Wexler test is widely used, which allows assessing a person's intelligence using a quantitative indicator - the coefficient of intellectual development. The test was used to differentiate between healthy and mentally retarded children, to study the intellectual activity of children with mental retardation, and to analyze the causes of poor progress. In all studies, sufficiently high reliability and validity of the test were confirmed. There is a version of the methodology specially adapted to the conditions of our country, designed to study the intellectual development of children from 5 to 16 years old (A.K. Panasyuk, A.Yu. Panasyuk). The advantage of the Wexler test is that it allows you to get an idea not only about the general level of intelligence, but also about the features of its structure due to the combination of subtests in it, aimed at studying various verbal and non-verbal (in the children's version - 12) intellectual characteristics, the degree of severity of which calculated on a single twenty-point scale. This makes it possible to establish which aspects of the child's intellectual activity are the worst formed, through which compensation can occur, to compare his achievements with the average norms and the results of examinations of other children. The methodology is based on the principle that it is assumed that intelligence includes not only the ability to operate with symbols, abstract concepts, think logically, but also navigate the situation and solve problems with specific objects. Due to the fact that the methodology consists of a verbal scale and a scale of actions (non-verbal), it is possible to obtain three final statistical assessments - general, verbal and non-verbal - with the corresponding intellectual coefficients. 84 The verbal scale consists of six tasks: 1) the general awareness task includes 30 questions; a stock of knowledge, memory for individual events and interests is revealed; 2) the task for general understanding consists of 14 problem situations; the amount of practical information is determined, as well as the ability to evaluate and use previously accumulated life experience; 3) arithmetic task - a series of tasks of increasing complexity; characterized by the ability to operate with numerical material, the ability to concentrate and short-term memory; 4) the task to establish the similarity between concepts includes 12 pairs of words; the ability to form concepts is assessed; 5) "dictionary" - a list of 40 words of increasing difficulty; their meanings must be determined by the subject; 6) the task of memorizing a series of numbers from three to nine terms in direct or reverse order; characterized by immediate recall or short-term memory. The scale of actions also consists of six tasks: 1) the task for adding pictures is performed on 20 drawings, each of which lacks one of the essential details; naming the missing part shows the ability to differentiate the main from the secondary; 2) task for the arrangement of pictures: one of the 7 series of pictures is presented in a random order and it should be placed in a logical sequence that reflects the dynamics of the depicted events; assesses the ability to understand the situation as a whole, i.e. establish causal relationships; 3) "composing figures from cubes" in accordance with a number of increasingly complex patterns; analytical and synthetic abilities and possibilities of spatial coordination and integration are revealed; 4) the task "folding objects": from separate parts it is required to make a figure of a person, a horse, a car and a face, i.e. to create a whole from partial information with considerable freedom of choice of solution; 5) the coordination task is carried out on a series of triangles divided in half, and is designed to recognize the connection between a certain number and the corresponding figure; the ability to learn new material is revealed; 6) "mazes": finding the right way in a series of increasingly complex labyrinths allows you to judge spatial representations. The results of the performance of each task are evaluated separately, and this gives a qualitative description of various mental functions, especially if one takes into account the methods of performing various tests. A variety of tasks makes it possible to assess abilities that are practically free from the influence of training. The presence of a scale of actions allows you to explore children with hearing and speech disorders. Attention is drawn to the fact that the subtests included in the version of the Veksler method for children practically do not differ in content from the experimental psychological methods widely used in pathopsychology. This is the study of the child's awareness and vocabulary, his ability to use knowledge in a particular situation, solving arithmetic problems, finding analogies and similarities between concepts, "successive pictures", "Koos cubes", composing objects from separate parts, proofreading tests and mazes. For these pathopsychological techniques, the ways of qualitative data analysis are quite clearly developed, and the experimenter has the opportunity to make the necessary changes and additions to the test study procedure aimed at studying the quality of the violation. First of all, using this technique, it is necessary to take into account and strictly record all the individual characteristics of the subjects, as well as all the features of their behavior during the survey. This will allow a more accurate assessment of the nature of their intellectual impairments and will make it possible to establish what influence personal and other factors have on the process of completing tasks. The following indicators are of the greatest interest. 1. Peculiarities of the child’s communication with the experimenter: does he easily make contact, does he ask questions and which ones, does he tell something about himself, etc. If the child is excessively shy, withdrawn, does not communicate well, it is advisable to start his examination with non-verbal tasks. Bright cubes, pictures usually arouse interest in a child, relieve stiffness and fear. When the child gets used to it a little and stops slowing down, you can offer him verbal tasks. At the same time, one should not demand detailed answers from him, it is only important to find out how much he understands, knows various objects and phenomena, knows how to generalize, compare them with each other. When qualifying a defect, it must be taken into account that the low quantitative indicators obtained by the child on verbal tests in this case are most likely the result of increased inhibition. Sociable children usually react violently to all questions and tasks, often ask again, clarify, give examples from their own lives, etc. On the one hand, all this can serve as additional information for the experimenter, and on the other hand, it increases the examination time and disrupts its rhythm. In some cases, such children should be tactfully stopped, asked to answer only on the merits. 2. Features of motivation: do the tasks cause interest, what is the reaction to failure, how does the child evaluate his abilities and achievements. In children with strong cognitive motivation, any interruption of activity can cause an experience of failure, a feeling of dissatisfaction. Therefore, in those cases when the child is oriented in the task for a very long time, looking for the most correct solution and at the same time does not fit into the allotted time limit, it is necessary to allow him to complete the task to the end and fix the individual pace of work. The score should be output in a standard way. 3. Dynamic characteristics of activity: impulsivity, disinhibition, haste in completing tasks or lethargy, slowness, exhaustion. Examination of children with increased exhaustion, low performance should be carried out in several stages, giving them significant breaks for rest. Such children perform tasks very slowly and often do not fit in the allotted time. Therefore, it is advisable not to interrupt the child, not to limit the time for completing tasks in order to find out whether he is in principle capable of coping with them, but be sure to take into account the individual time of completion. Low scores on subtests with time limits should be considered a consequence of a slow pace of mental activity. 4. Features of attention: distractibility, switchability, fluctuations, indicators of self-control. 5. Characteristics of motor skills: speed of movement, coordination, strength of muscle tone, accuracy of movements, etc. 6. Speech features: lack of formation of phrasal speech, pronunciation difficulties, incorrect use of words, reservations, speech inertia, violation of the regulatory function of speech. 7. Methods for performing tasks: deciding by trial and error or using logical techniques, whether the found method is transferred to similar tasks, etc. Thus, unlike the standard test research procedure, when only the result of the task is noted, it makes sense to record the entire course of the experiment in detail and carefully, fixing, if possible, everything that the subject does and says. At the same time, the fact that the purity of the test itself is practically not violated is of great importance, since quantitative estimates are derived in a standard way, and any additions and changes made by the experimenter are used for a qualitative analysis of the data obtained. 87 Test "Progressive matrices Ravenna" The test was proposed by L. Penrose and J. Raven in 1936. In the course of work, the subject had to identify relationships between abstract figures. Two versions of the test are common - black and white and color; black and white is intended for examination of subjects aged 8 - 14 and 20 - 65 years old, color - 5 - 11 years old. In the black and white version, the subject sequentially works with 60 patterns or compositions where part of the pattern or one of the elements is missing; it is necessary to select the missing part from the proposed options. Tasks are grouped into five series. In the first series, it is necessary to find the missing part of the image, in the second - analogies between pairs of figures, in the third - the principle of development, changes in figures, in the fourth - the principle of rearranging figures, in the fifth - the patterns of relationships and interactions between figures horizontally and vertically. Within each series, the complexity of the tasks increases. The color version is lighter, contains three series of tasks. Amthauer Intelligence Structure Test The test is used in various editions: the first one was proposed by R. Amthauer in 1953, the last one - in 1973. It contains eight subtests: 1) logical selection (finish the sentence with one of the given words); 2) definition of common features (find the extra of five words, where four are united by a common connection); 3) analogies (a couple of words and a third word are offered; you need to find something related to the third, as the second to the first); 4) classification (designate two words as a general concept); 5) tasks on the account (solution of arithmetic problems); 6) series of numbers (to establish patterns and continue the number series); 7) the choice of figures (images of parts of the figure are presented; from the proposed figures, you need to find one that can be added from these parts); 8) tasks with cubes (an image of a cube with variously colored sides is presented; you need to find a similar cube among the presented images, taking into account the fact that it could change its position). Of course, we have not considered all the tests of intelligence, but the tests we briefly described, firstly, are widely used in defectological practice, and secondly, they give an idea of ​​​​typical test tasks in the diagnosis of intelligence. The undoubted advantage of test methods is their great objectivity, the ability to compare the results of different 88 subjects. At the same time, studies constructed according to the type of a rigidly standardized methodology (test) show only a deviation from the norm, but do not allow identifying impaired functions and intact links. Creativity tests In psychodiagnostics, methods for studying abilities form a separate group and are known as "creativity tests". The methodological basis on which these diagnostic techniques are built is the concept of creativity - a universal creative ability proposed by J. Gilford. According to his ideas, creativity is an independent factor, independent of the level of intelligence. J. Gilford singled out several parameters of creativity (creative ability): - the ability to detect and formulate problems; - the ability to generate a large number of ideas; - the ability to produce a variety of ideas (flexibility); - the ability to answer outside the box, to establish unusual associations (originality); - the ability to improve the object by adding details; - ability to solve problems. On the basis of these theoretical premises, tests for the study of abilities were developed. In total, there are 14 subtests in the methodology (4 - for non-verbal creativity, 10 - for verbal). Among them there are such tasks: - list as many ways as possible to use each item (for example, banks); - draw the given objects using the following set of shapes: circle, triangle, rectangle, trapezoid. In the future, the development of methods for studying creativity was continued by E.P. Torrance. His technique is intended for people of all ages - from preschoolers to adults. The Torrens methodology includes 12 subtests grouped into three blocks: verbal, visual, sound. They diagnose, respectively, verbal creative thinking, visual creative thinking and verbal-sound creative thinking. Torrens developed these tests in the course of educational and methodological work on the development of the creative abilities of children. His methodology includes several steps. At the first stage, the subject is offered tasks to search for a word from a meaningless sequence of letters. He must find the only correct solution and formulate a rule leading to the solution of the problem. 89 At the next stage, the subject is offered plot pictures. He must list all the possible circumstances that led to the situation depicted in the picture, and give a forecast of its further development. Next, the subject is offered various objects and asked to list all the possible ways to use them. When studying the creative abilities and imagination of children and adolescents with developmental disorders, the methods of J. Guilford and E.P. Torrens in the classical version, as a rule, are not used, however, a modification of the E.P. Torrens "Finish the figure". When studying preschool children, tasks such as "Cut pictures", "Draw the whole" (A.A. Kataeva, E.A. Strebeleva) are also used. When studying schoolchildren with intellectual disabilities, tasks can be used to compose a story based on the proposed words, drawing illustrations for this story (O.V. Borovik). 90 83:: 84:: 85:: 86:: 87:: 88:: 89:: 90:: Contents Levchenko I.Yu., Zabramnaya S.D., Dobrovolskaya T.A., Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics - M Academy, 2003. 320 s/B5686Part15-90.html 90:: 91:: 92:: 93:: Contents 3.4.4. Neuropsychological study of children with developmental disorders In recent years, a systematic analysis of higher mental functions (HMF) is increasingly used in childhood psychiatry and defectology in the study of various types of mental dysontogenesis: intellectual retardation, specific disorders of school skills (dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia), speech disorders, etc. As is known, these types of disturbed mental development are mainly associated with organic damage to the brain in the early stages of ontogenesis and secondary underdevelopment of brain structures that form postnatally. According to many domestic and foreign researchers, it is advisable to use neuropsychological methods in the complex of clinical and psychological study of abnormal children, since the data obtained in this way make it possible to assess the state of visual and auditory perception, praxis, speech, memory - those functions that provide opportunities for mastering elementary school skills (reading, writing, counting, solving arithmetic problems). In addition to particular disorders of the mental functions listed above, the difficulties in teaching children may be due to general non-specific disorders of brain activity, reflecting the discoordination of cortical-subcortical interactions. At the same time, in some cases, disorders of general neurodynamics come to the fore, manifested in increased exhaustion, disturbances in the pace and mobility of mental processes, and also in working capacity. In other clinical variants of mental dysontogenesis, violations of the arbitrariness and purposefulness of cognitive activity are more significant: the absence or instability of the attitude (motivation) for cognitive activity, difficulties in planning a given mental operation, instability of voluntary attention and control. As is known, these aspects of conscious activity are provided primarily by the work of the frontal and frontal-subcortical brain systems (A.R. Luria, M.S. Pevzner, E.D. Khomskaya and others)1. Thus, the data of a neuropsychological study of a child with developmental disorders make it possible to clarify the structure of disorders in his cognitive activity, which is extremely important in solving the issues of prognosis and individualization of psychological and pedagogical assistance. Modification of the neuropsychological methodology of A.R. Luria, adapted for the study of children with symptoms of residual cerebral insufficiency, allows: - to identify the main criteria for a qualitative assessment of the state of higher mental functions; - to determine the criteria for a qualitative and quantitative assessment of the state of the HMF to determine the degree of their impairment in order to be able to compare the results of repeated studies of the same child in the process of corrective work with him, as well as to compare the neuropsychological characteristics of children of the same age of homogeneous or heterogeneous clinical groups. In a qualitative analysis of the state of HMF, first of all, it is necessary to identify the leading factor that hinders the implementation of a given psychological operation. Such leading factors may be violations: - neurodynamic; - higher forms of regulation; - individual cortical functions. The criterion for qualitative and quantitative assessment of the results of the study is based on the degree of severity of qualitative indicators

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BACHELOR

Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics of the development of persons with disabilities

Edited by I.Yu. Levchenko, S.D. Zabramnaya

For students of higher education institutions,

students in the direction of training 050700 Special (defectological) education

7th edition stereotypical

Reviewers:

doctor of pedagogical sciences, professor, head. Department of Speech Therapy, Moscow State University for the Humanities. M.A. Sholokhova O.S. Orlova;

Doctor of Pedagogy, Professor of the Department of Special Pedagogy and Special Psychology, Moscow State University for the Humanities. M.A. Sholokhova M.V. Zhigoreva

I.Yu.Levchenko - chapter 2; subsection 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4; 4.4 (co-authored with S. D. Zabramnaya); 5.3; 6.2; S. D. Zabramnaya - chapter 1; subsection 4.4 (co-authored with I. Yu. Levchenko); 6.1; T.A.Basilova - subsection. 5.5;

T.G. Bogdanova - subsection. 5.1; T.N. Volkovskaya - subsection. 3.5; 4.1, 4.2, 4.3;

L.I. Solntseva - subsection. 5.2; V.V. Tkachev - chapter 7; subsection 5.4

Psychological and pedagogical diagnostics of the development of persons P863 with disabilities: a textbook for students. institutions of higher prof. education / [I.Yu. Levchenko, S.D. Zabramnaya and others]; ed. I.Yu. Levchenko, S.D. Zabramnaya. - 7th ed., Ster. - M .: Publishing Center

"Academy", 2013. - 336 p. - (Ser. Baccalaureate). ISBN 978-5-7695-9767-1

The textbook was created in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard in the direction of training 050700 Special (defectological) education (qualification "Bachelor").

It presents the theoretical foundations of psychodiagnostics of developmental disorders in children, describes various approaches and ways of studying children with various developmental disabilities, shows the methods and techniques of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics, features of the psychodiagnostic procedure for examining children with developmental disabilities. The 5th edition was published under the title "Psycho-Pedagogical Diagnostics".

For students of higher education institutions.

UDC 37.015.3(075.8) BBK 88.8ya73

The original layout of this publication is the property of the Academy Publishing Center, and its reproduction in any way without the consent of the copyright holder is prohibited.

© Levchenko I.Yu., Zabramnaya S.D. et al., 2011

© Educational and publishing Center "Academy", 2011

ISBN 978-5-7695-9767-1 © Design. Publishing Center "Academy", 2011

Foreword

The textbook is addressed to students of the faculties of special psychology and correctional pedagogy (defectological faculties) of pedagogical universities. The main purpose of the publication is to acquaint students with the theoretical foundations of psychodiagnostics of developmental disorders in children and show different approaches and ways of studying children with various developmental disabilities.

The textbook contains factual material that reflects the features of the psychodiagnostic procedure for examining children with developmental disabilities, as well as a description of the methods and techniques of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics.

The book consists of a preface and seven chapters.

The first chapter provides a historical overview of the development of psycho-pedagogical diagnostic methods in special psychology.

The second chapter contains an analysis of the theoretical and methodological foundations of the psychodiagnostics of children. It also discusses the tasks, principles and current problems of the psychological and pedagogical study of children with disabilities.

The third chapter shows the main components of an integrated approach in psychological and pedagogical diagnostics: medical, pedagogical, socio-pedagogical, psychological

and speech therapy study of the child.

The fourth chapter discusses the features of the psychological and pedagogical study of children at different age stages.

The fifth chapter introduces the features of the psychological and pedagogical study of children with various developmental disorders.

The sixth chapter presents modern approaches to the organization and content of the activities of psychological-medical-pedagogical consultations, psychological-medical-pedagogical commissions and psychological-medical-pedagogical consultations.

The seventh chapter presents materials that allow organizing a psychodiagnostic study of a family raising a child with a developmental disorder. These materials for defectologists are published for the first time.

Control questions and tasks , which ends the presentation of each topic, allow you to check the degree of assimilation of the material. At the end of each chapter and a number of paragraphs are presented literature lists recommended for study.

Chapter 1

HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL DIAGNOSIS METHODS IN SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGY

1.1. Development of psychological and pedagogical research methods abroad

The history of the development of psychological and pedagogical methods of research in special psychology is connected with the requirements of practice - medical and pedagogical. The objects of study were children, adolescents, adults who had various disorders of mental and mental development.

Depending on how different researchers understood the essence of mental retardation, they developed the methods that they used to identify it.

The first psychophysical underdevelopment of children began to deal with psychiatrists. Their efforts were aimed at distinguishing mental retardation from mental illness, while they dealt with the most profound and severe forms of underdevelopment. In the works of the French doctors J. Esquirol and E. Seguin, the first researchers of the problems of the mentally retarded, some differential diagnostic criteria are given. Thus, J. Esquirol considered the state of speech to be an indicator of intellectual development, which largely influenced the predominance of verbal tasks in subsequent test systems. E. Seguin attached great importance to the state of sensory and volitional processes. He created a methodology for teaching severely mentally retarded children, part of which were tasks for sensory discrimination and the development of voluntary motor actions. Developed by E. Seguin in 1866, "Form Boards" are still popular in the examination of mentally retarded children, they are among the tests of action, or non-verbal intelligence tests. It should be noted that until the middle of the nineteenth century. the establishment of mental retardation remained predominantly a medical problem.

With the introduction of universal primary education in some countries, there has been a practical need to identify children who are not capable of learning in regular schools. In this regard, in the 60s. nineteenth century the first auxiliary classes were opened, as well as special schools for mentally retarded children. Now it has become much more difficult to determine mental retardation, since it was necessary to deal with its milder forms, which are difficult to distinguish from similar conditions with various developmental deviations in children. Progressive doctors and educators were concerned about the fact that children were often sent to auxiliary schools on the basis of only one indicator - poor progress. At the same time, the individual psychological characteristics of the child and the causes of poor progress were little taken into account, and sometimes they were not taken into account at all.

There was a need to streamline the system for selecting children in auxiliary schools. The establishment of mental retardation has become a psychological and pedagogical problem.

Psychologists came to the aid of doctors and teachers, who in their arsenal of methods also had experimental methods that appeared in these years (the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century). The search for the most objective, universal ways of examining children began, which should be regarded as a positive development in the development of the psychology of this period.

Experimental methods of studying children began to be used to diagnose abilities. Some psychologists misunderstood the essence of mental retardation, considering it as a simple quantitative lag in the development of the intellect of children. They reduced mental retardation to a violation of only individual functions and saw the objectives of the experiment in the study of only these functions. Their methodical approach was to measure the "amount of mind" in the subject, which in practice led to significant errors in diagnosing mental retardation. This measurement was carried out using tests. A test is a test that includes the performance of a specific task, identical for all subjects examined, using an accurate technique to evaluate success or failure, or to record results numerically (A. Pieron).

One of the first to start testing was the English biologist F. Galton. He developed simple tests to explore individual differences. At the same time, he considered the state of human sensory functions to be the main indicator of mental abilities: visual acuity and hearing, the speed of mental reactions, the ability to distinguish between heat, cold, pain, etc. F. Galton did not yet use the term "test" in the sense that in him later

invested by A. Binet. But this was the first departure from testing and testing based on intuition.

The idea of ​​studying physical and mental abilities by the method of tests was developed in the works of the American psychologist J. M. Cattell. The appearance of the term "intellectual test" in the psychological literature is associated with his name. J. M. Cattell created a series of tests aimed at determining the state of simple functions, sensorimotor reactions, the speed of mental processes, sensitivity, etc., to establish individual differences. Cattell's merit was the idea of ​​standardizing tests in order to obtain more accurate information.

The measurement of more complex mental processes (perception, memory, etc.) formed the basis of a series of tests created by the German psychologist E. Kraepelin, who studied the mentally ill. Describing the period before the beginning of the 20th century, scientists note that it had a great influence on the development of psychodiagnostics and became a preparatory and at the same time a transitional stage in the development of psychological tests.

The subsequent development of intelligence tests is associated with the activities of the French psychologist A. Binet, who back in 1897 suggested the development of a “metric scale of reason”, that is, such a system for studying a child, in which the measurement of his “mental age” is taken as the basis. At the same time, A. Binet set the task of creating tests with the help of which it would be possible to investigate higher mental processes - thinking, memory, imagination. In 1904, A. Binet was invited to a commission set up by the French Ministry of Public Education to develop measures to ensure the proper education of mentally retarded children who cannot master the curriculum of an ordinary school. The task was to determine the methods for selecting these children for special schools. A. Binet, together with T. Simon, for the first time bring tests into a certain system, which they called the "Metric Scale of Mental Abilities".

The first version of their "Metric Scale" was published in 1905. It contained 30 tests, arranged in order of increasing difficulty.

These tests were aimed at determining the type of memory in children, understanding of verbal instructions, etc. In this variant, there were no age indicators.

In 1908, the second, revised, version of the "Metric Scale" came out, in which the tests were grouped by age levels (from 3 to 15 years). Three to eight tests were used for each age.

The third version appeared in 1911. In it, A. Binet and T. Simon proposed tests for examining children from 3 to 16 years old. The tests were redistributed according to their difficulty. There were five tasks for each age group. But even in this variant, the choice of tests was not always psychologically justified. So, for one age, tests for combination were offered, for another - for the study of memory. This was pointed out by A. M. Schubert in her preface to the Russian edition of the tests. She noted other shortcomings of the tests: due to their difficulty, they are not always correctly assigned to a particular age, some are subjective, and the successful completion of many tests depends mainly on the child's life experience. So, in the fifth test, children of 9 years old are asked questions: “What should you do if you miss the train?”, “What should you do if a friend (girlfriend) accidentally hits you?”. It is required to give the correct answers in 20 s. Children 10 years old in the third test are offered five questions. Answers are given for 40 s. Among these questions is the following: “On one of the very first warm days, when the forests and fields began to turn green, the woman took a sickle and went to harvest rye. What's wrong here?" However, not every 10-year-old child living in the city knows when

and how they reap rye! In the fifth test, 15-year-old children are required to answer two questions, but both of them are related to life situations that may be unfamiliar to the subjects, for example: “A doctor just came to my neighbor, and then a priest. What do you think is going on with my neighbor?” Thus, although Binet and Simon sought to explore the "pure" mind, the faculty of judgment, they did not achieve this.

The disadvantage of the "Metric Scale" was that 80% of the tests were verbal in nature. The predominance of verbal tests influenced the results of the examination of children of different social strata, the poorest children were in the worst position. Children with speech defects also gave unsatisfactory results.

Of course, the point of view of the authors of the test was also erroneous, that when determining the ability, knowledge should be recorded.

and child's skills at the moment. They did not take into account the dialectics of development, they did not take into account those qualitative changes in the psyche that appear at different stages of a child's development. L. S. Vygotsky, criticizing this approach, wrote: “The development of a child is understood as a purely quantitative process of the growth of qualitatively homogeneous and equal units, which are fundamentally replaced at any stage of development. A year of development is always a year, whether the child is moving from six to seven, or from twelve to thirteen. This is the basic concept of Binet, whose year of development is always measured by five indicators,

taking into account as a completely equivalent value the determined mental growth of the child, whether it is the growth of the twelfth or third year of life. Fixing only the final results of work with the test, mechanically counting the pluses and minuses received for the answers, it was not possible to trace the nature of the children's activities. All this led to difficulties and errors in diagnosing mental retardation, especially when children with signs of mild intellectual impairment were examined.

AT In the same period, the professor of psychology at the University of Rome, S. de Sanctis, who studied mentally retarded children, offered his series of tasks from six experiments to determine the degree of mental underdevelopment. The experiments were aimed at studying attention, volitional efforts, direct memory for colors, shapes, the ability to count specific objects, visual determination of size, distance.

FROM. de Sanctis believed that the experiments were applicable to children no younger than 7 years old. If the subject can complete only the first two tasks, then he has a "sharp degree" of intellectual decline, if he completes the first four, then he has a "medium degree", if he copes with the fifth experience, then a "light degree". Children who perform all six experiments are not mentally retarded. Analysis of the method of S. de Sanctis shows its unsuitability for the diagnosis of mental development. As a diagnostic criterion, mental processes were chosen arbitrarily, and the very border of the degrees of mental retardation was conditional. These shortcomings have been pointed out by many researchers. G. Ya. Troshin subjected the method of S. de Sanctis to the most justified criticism. This method has not been widely used in practice.

The tests of A. Binet and T. Simon were the most popular abroad, and they began to be used in many countries of the world even before the revision of the 1908 version.

About 60 authors were engaged in the modernization of the Binet-Simon scale, adapting it to the socio-cultural conditions of their states. Changes to the scale were made by O. Dekroli and Degan (Belgium), Decedre (Switzerland), V. Stern, Emeiman (Germany), H. Goddard, L. Theremin (USA). The variant of the Binet-Simon scale, prepared by L. Theremin at Stanford University in the USA, turned out to be, according to psychologists, the most viable. One of the trends that emerged during the modernization of the system is a decrease in the number of verbal tests and an increase in the number of action (non-verbal) tests.

AT In the process of reconstructing the Binet-Simon L. Termen scale, he introduced a new requirement, which must be satisfied by ad-

a test that is appropriate for its purpose: the results of its execution on a large sample of subjects should be distributed along a Gaussian curve. Thus, it was proposed to rank the subjects depending on the test results. (A Gaussian or normal distribution curve is shaped like a bell; this distribution of results means that the vast majority of subjects perform the task "moderately well", i.e. their answers create a high part of the bell; a minority perform tasks very badly or very well, their answers create the peripheral parts of the bell.) To interpret the results of the test, L. Termen first began to use the concept of “intellectual quotient” (IQ) introduced by V. Stern, which is the ratio of mental age to chronological (passport) age. The intelligence of the test-takers was evaluated purely quantitatively by the sum of their scores.

V. Stern proposed the following formula for determining the intellectual coefficient:

Mental age is determined by the success of the corresponding standard tasks. For each age, tasks of a certain difficulty are provided. For each age, the typical IQ is 100 ±16. This value is determined by the fact that normally the mental age is equal to the chronological one: for example, a five-year-old child performs tasks corresponding to his age. Consequently:

i.e. 100. The standard deviation from individual values ​​does not exceed 16. Accordingly, all individual test indicators that fall in the range from 84 to 116 are considered normal, age-appropriate. If the test score is above 116, the child is considered gifted; if below 84 - his intellectual development lags behind the norm.

However, no changes and “improvements” to the Binet-Simon scale have saved it from such shortcomings as assessing only the final result when completing a task; the difficulties that the subject encountered in this case were not revealed. The role of aid, as well as the influence of the environment, was not taken into account at all. The well-known Swiss psychologist J. Piaget criticized the tests for "mosaic", the diversity of the tasks included in the test