The struggle of Rus' with foreign conquerors, 13th century. The struggle of Rus' with foreign conquerors in the XIII century

In 1206, the Mongol empire was formed, headed by Temuchin (Genghis Khan). The Mongols defeated Primorye, Northern China, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, attacked the Polovtsians. Russian princes came to the aid of the Polovtsy (Kyiv, Chernigov, Volyn, etc.), but in 1223 they were defeated on Kalka due to inconsistency in actions.
In 1236 the Mongols conquered the Volga Bulgaria, and in 1237, led by Batu, invaded Rus'. They ruined the Ryazan and Vladimir lands, in 1238 they defeated them on the river. The city of Yuri Vladimirsky, he himself died. In 1239, the second wave of invasion began. Chernigov, Kyiv, Galich fell. Batu went to Europe, from where he returned in 1242.
The reasons for the defeat of Rus' were its fragmentation, the numerical superiority of the close-knit and mobile army of the Mongols, its skillful tactics, and the absence of stone fortresses in Rus'.
The yoke of the Golden Horde, the state of the invaders in the Volga region, was established.
Rus' paid her tribute (tithe), from which only the church was exempted, and supplied soldiers. The collection of tribute was controlled by the Khan's Baskaks, later by the princes themselves. They received from the khan a charter for reigning - a label. The prince of Vladimir was recognized as the eldest among the princes. The Horde intervened in the feuds of the princes and ruined Rus' many times. The invasion caused great damage to the military and economic power of Rus', its international prestige and culture. The southern and western lands of Rus' (Galich, Smolensk, Polotsk, etc.) later passed to Lithuania and Poland.
In the 1220s. Russians participated in Estonia in the struggle against the German crusaders - the Order of the Sword, in 1237 transformed into the Livonian Order, a vassal of the Teutonic Order. In 1240, the Swedes landed at the mouth of the Neva, trying to cut off Novgorod from the Baltic. Prince Alexander defeated them in the Battle of the Neva. In the same year, the Livonian knights launched an offensive, taking Pskov. In 1242, Alexander Nevsky defeated them on Lake Peipus, stopping the raids of the Livonians for 10 years.

Topic: Rus''s struggle against foreign invaders in the 13th century

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University: VZFEI

Year and city: Vladimir 2009

Plan
1. The history of the Mongolian state and its conquests before coming to Rus'.
2. The beginning of the Tatar-Mongol invasion and the establishment of the yoke (1238 - 1242)
3. The struggle of the Russian people with the Tatar-Mongols in 1242 - 1300.
4. The struggle of the Russian people against the Swedish-German aggression

1. The history of the Mongolian state and its conquests before coming to Rus'.

Since ancient times, primitive peoples have lived in the steppes of Central Asia, the main occupation of which was nomadic cattle breeding. By the beginning of the XI century. the territory of modern Mongolia and southern Siberia was settled by Kereites, Naimans, Tatars and other tribes who spoke the Mongolian language. The formation of their statehood belongs to this period. The leaders of nomadic tribes were called khans, noble feudal lords - noyons. The social and state system of nomadic peoples had its own specifics: it was based on private ownership not of land, but of cattle and pastures. The nomadic economy requires constant expansion of the territory, so the Mongol nobility sought to conquer foreign lands.

In the second half of the XII century. The Mongol tribes under his rule were united by the leader Temujin. In 1206, the congress of tribal leaders awarded him the title of Genghis Khan. The exact meaning of this title is unknown, it is suggested that it can be translated as "great khan".

The power of the great khan was enormous; the management of individual parts of the state was distributed among his relatives, in strict subordination to whom there was nobility with squads and a mass of dependent people.

Genghis Khan managed to create a very combat-ready army, which had a clear organization and iron discipline. The army was divided into tens, hundreds, thousands. Ten thousand Mongol warriors were called "darkness" ("tumen"). Tumens were not only military, but also administrative units.

The main striking force of the Mongols was the cavalry. Each warrior had two or three bows, several quivers with arrows, an ax, a rope lasso, and a good command of a saber. The warrior's horse was covered with skins, which protected it from the arrows and weapons of the enemy. The head, neck and chest of the Mongol warrior from enemy arrows and spears were covered with an iron or copper helmet, leather armor. The Mongolian cavalry had high mobility. On their undersized, with a shaggy mane, hardy horses, they could travel up to 80 km per day, and up to 10 km with wagon trains, wall and flamethrower guns.

The Mongolian state was formed as a conglomerate of tribes and nationalities, devoid of an economic basis. The law of the Mongols was "yasa" - a record of the norms of customary law, put at the service of the state. The capital of the Tatar-Mongols was the city of Karakorum on the Orkhon River, a tributary of the Selenga.

With the beginning of predatory campaigns, in which the feudal lords sought funds to replenish their income and possessions, a new period began in the history of the Mongolian people, disastrous not only for the conquered peoples of neighboring countries, but also for the Mongolian people themselves. The strength of the Mongolian state lay in the fact that it arose in the local feudal society at the early stages of its development, when the class of feudal lords still unanimously supported the aggressive aspirations of the great khans. In their attack on Central Asia, the Caucasus and Eastern Europe, the Mongol invaders encountered already feudally fragmented states, split into many possessions. The internecine hostility of the rulers deprived the peoples of the opportunity to put up an organized rebuff to the invasion of the nomads.

The Mongols began their campaigns with the conquest of the lands of their neighbors - Buryats, Evenks, Yakuts, Uighurs, Yenisei Kirghiz (by 1211). Then they invaded China and in 1215 took Beijing. Three years later, Korea was conquered. Having defeated China (finally conquered in 1279), the Mongols significantly increased their military potential. Flamethrowers, wall-beaters, stone-throwing tools, vehicles were taken into service.

In the summer of 1219, almost 200,000 Mongol troops led by Genghis Khan began the conquest of Central Asia. Having suppressed the stubborn resistance of the population, the invaders stormed Otrar, Khujand, Merv, Bukhara, Urgench, Samarkand and other cities. After the conquest of the Central Asian states, a group of Mongolian troops under the command of Subedei, bypassing the Caspian Sea, attacked the countries of Transcaucasia. Having defeated the united Armenian-Georgian troops and causing enormous damage to the economy of Transcaucasia, the invaders, however, were forced to leave the territory of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, as they met with strong resistance from the population. Past Derbent, where there was a passage along the coast of the Caspian Sea, the Mongolian troops entered the steppes of the North Caucasus. Here they defeated the Alans (Ossetians) and Polovtsy, after which they ravaged the city of Sudak (Surozh) in the Crimea.

The Polovtsy, led by Khan Kotyan, father-in-law of the Galician prince Mstislav Udaly, turned to the Russian princes for help. They decided to act together with the Polovtsian khans. Vladimir-Suzdal Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich did not participate in the coalition. The battle took place on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River. Russian princes acted inconsistently. One of the allies, Prince of Kyiv Mstislav Romanovich, did not fight. He took refuge with his army on a hill. Princely feuds led to tragic consequences: the united Russian-Polovtsian army was surrounded and defeated. The captive princes of the Mongol-Tatars were brutally killed. After the battle on the river The winners did not begin to move further to Rus'. The next few years, the Mongol-Tatars fought in the Volga Bulgaria. Due to the heroic resistance of the Bulgars, the Mongols were able to conquer this state only in 1236. In 1227 Genghis Khan died. His empire began to disintegrate into separate parts (usuls).

2. The beginning of the Tatar-Mongol invasion and the establishment of the yoke (1238 - 1242)

In 1235, the Mongolian Khural (tribal congress) decided to start a big campaign to the West. It was headed by Genghis Khan's grandson Batu (Batu). In the autumn of 1237, Batu's troops approached the Russian lands. The first victim of the conquerors was the Ryazan principality. Its inhabitants asked for help from the Princes of Vladimir and Chernigov, but received no support from them. Probably, the reason for their refusal was internecine hostility, or maybe they underestimated the threatening danger. After five days of resistance, Ryazan fell, all the inhabitants, including the princely family, perished. In the old place, Ryazan was no longer revived (modern Ryazan is a new city located 60 km from the old Ryazan, it used to be called Pereyaslavl Ryazansky).

In January 1238, the Mongols moved along the Oka River to the Vladimir-Suzdal land. The battle with the Vladimir-Suzdal army took place near the city of Kolomna, on the border of the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal lands. In this battle, the Vladimir army was killed, which actually predetermined the fate of northeastern Rus'.

Strong resistance to the enemy for 5 days was provided by the population of Moscow, led by the governor Philip Nyanka. After the capture by the Mongols, Moscow was burned, and its inhabitants were killed.

February 4, 1238 Batu laid siege to Vladimir - the capital of North-Eastern Rus'. The distance from Kolomna to Vladimir (300 km) was covered by his troops in a month. While part of the Tatar-Mongolian army surrounded the city with siege engines, preparing an assault, other armies dispersed throughout the principality: they captured Rostov, Yaroslavl, Tver, Yuryev, Dmitrov and other cities, 14 in total, not counting villages and graveyards. A special detachment occupied and burned Suzdal, some of the inhabitants were killed by the invaders, and the rest, both women and children, "barefoot and uncovered" in the cold, were driven to their camps. On the fourth day of the siege, the invaders broke into the city through gaps in the fortress wall near the Golden Gate. The princely family and the remnants of the troops closed in the Assumption Cathedral. The Mongols surrounded the cathedral with trees and set it on fire. The capital of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus with its wonderful cultural monuments was plundered on February 7.

After the capture of Vladimir, the Mongols broke up into separate detachments and subjected the cities of northeastern Rus' to a rout. Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich, even before the approach of the invaders to Vladimir, went to the north of his land to gather military forces. Hastily assembled regiments in 1238 were defeated on the City River, and Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich himself died in the battle.

The Mongol hordes moved to the north-west of Rus'. After a two-week siege, the city of Torzhok fell, and the way to Novgorod was opened to the Mongol-Tatars. But, before reaching the city for about 100 km, the conquerors turned back. The reason for this was probably the spring thaw and the fatigue of the Mongol army. The retreat was in the nature of a "raid". Divided into separate detachments, the invaders "combed" the Russian cities. Smolensk managed to fight back, other centers were defeated. The greatest resistance to the Mongols was provided by the city of Kozelsk, which defended itself for seven weeks. The Mongols called Kozelsk an "evil city".

The second campaign of the Mongol-Tatars against Rus' took place in 1239-1240. This time the goal of the conquerors was the lands of Southern and Western Rus'. In the spring of 1239, Batu defeated southern Rus' (Pereyaslavl South), in the fall - the Chernigov principality. In the autumn of the next 1240, the Mongol troops crossed the Dnieper and laid siege to Kyiv. After a long defense, which was headed by the voivode Dmitr, Kyiv fell. Then in 1241 Galicia-Volyn Rus was ravaged. After that, the conquerors divided into two groups, one of which moved to Poland, and the other to Hungary. They ravaged these countries, but did not advance further, the forces of the conquerors were already running out.

The part of the Mongol Empire that ruled the Russian lands was called the Golden Horde in the historical literature.

3. The struggle of the Russian people with the Tatar-Mongols in 1242 - 1300.

Despite the terrible ruin, the Russian people waged a partisan struggle. A legend has been preserved about the Ryazan hero Yevpaty Kolovrat, who gathered a squad of 1700 "brave" from the survivors of the battle in Ryazan and inflicted considerable damage on the enemy in Suzdal. The warriors of Kolovrat suddenly appeared where the enemy did not expect them, and terrified the invaders. The struggle of the people for independence undermined the rear of the Mongol invaders.

This struggle also took place in other lands. Leaving the borders of Rus' to the west, the Mongol governors decided to provide themselves with food in the western region of Kyiv land. Having entered into an agreement with the boyars of the Bolokhov land, they did not ruin the local cities and villages, but obliged the local population to supply their army with grain. However, the Galician-Volyn prince Daniel, returning to Rus', undertook a campaign against the Bolokhov traitor boyars. The princely army "to betray the city of their fires and rowed (shafts) of their excavation", six Bolokhov cities were destroyed and thereby undermined the supply of the Mongolian troops.

The inhabitants of the Chernihiv land also fought. This struggle involved both ordinary people and, apparently, feudal lords. The papal ambassador Plano Carpini reports that when he was in Rus' (on the way to the Horde), Prince Andrei of Chernigov “was accused before Batu of taking the horses of the Tatars out of the land and selling them to another place; and although this was not proven, he was nevertheless killed. Stealing Tatar horses has become a widespread form of struggle against steppe invaders.

The Russian lands devastated by the Mongols were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. The incessant struggle waged by the Russian people against the invaders forced the Mongol-Tatars to abandon the creation of their own administrative authorities in Rus'. Rus' retained its statehood. This was facilitated by the presence in Rus' of its own administration and church organization. In addition, the lands of Rus' were unsuitable for nomadic cattle breeding, in contrast, for example, to Central Asia, the Caspian Sea, and the Black Sea region.

In 1243, the brother of the Great Vladimir Prince Yuri Yaroslav II (1238 - 1247), who was killed on the Sit River, was called to the Khan's headquarters. Yaroslav recognized vassal dependence on the Golden Horde and received a label (letter) for the great reign of Vladimir and a golden plaque (paizda) - a kind of pass through the Horde territory. Following him, other princes reached out to the Horde.

To control the Russian lands, the institution of Baskak governors was created - the leaders of the military detachments of the Mongol-Tatars, who monitored the activities of the Russian princes. The denunciation of the Baskaks to the Horde inevitably ended either with the summoning of the prince to Sarai (often he lost his label, and even his life), or with a punitive campaign in the unruly land. Suffice it to say that only in the last quarter of the XIII century. 14 such campaigns were organized in Russian lands.

Some Russian princes, in an effort to quickly get rid of vassal dependence on the Horde, took the path of open armed resistance. However, the forces to overthrow the power of the invaders were still not enough. So, for example, in 1252 the regiments of the Vladimir and Galician-Volyn princes were defeated. This was well understood by Alexander Nevsky, from 1252 to 1263 the Grand Duke of Vladimir. He set a course for the restoration and recovery of the economy of the Russian lands. The policy of Alexander Nevsky was also supported by the Russian Church, which saw a great danger in Catholic expansion, and not in the tolerant rulers of the Golden Horde.

In 1257, the Mongol-Tatars undertook a census of the population - "recording in number." Besermen (Muslim merchants) were sent to the cities, to whom the collection of tribute was given. The size of the tribute (“exit”) was very large, only the “royal tribute”, i.e. tribute in favor of the khan, which was first collected in kind, and then in money, amounted to 1300 kg of silver per year. The constant tribute was supplemented by "requests" - one-time requisitions in favor of the khan. In addition, deductions from trade duties, taxes for "feeding" the khan's officials, etc. went to the khan's treasury. In total there were 14 types of tributes in favor of the Tatars.

Census of the population in the 50s - 60s of the XIII century. marked by numerous uprisings of Russian people against the Baskaks, Khan's ambassadors, tribute collectors, scribes. In 1262, the inhabitants of Rostov, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Suzdal, and Ustyug dealt with the tribute collectors, the Besermen. This led to the fact that the collection of tribute from the end of the XIII century. was handed over to the Russian princes.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion had a great influence on the historical fate of Russia. In all likelihood, the resistance of Rus' saved Europe from the Asian conquerors.

The Mongol invasion and the Golden Horde yoke became one of the reasons for the Russian lands lagging behind the developed countries of Western Europe. Huge damage was done to the economic, political and cultural development of Rus'. Tens of thousands of people died in battle or were driven into slavery. A significant part of the income in the form of tribute went to the Horde.

The old agricultural centers and the once developed territories were abandoned and fell into decay. The border of agriculture moved to the north, the southern fertile soils were called the "Wild Field". Many crafts became simpler and sometimes even disappeared, which hampered the creation of small-scale production and, ultimately, retarded economic development.

The Mongol conquest preserved political fragmentation. It weakened the ties between the various parts of the state. Traditional political and trade ties with other countries were disrupted. The vector of Russian foreign policy, which took place along the “south-north” line (the fight against the nomadic danger, stable ties with Byzantium and through the Baltic with Europe), radically changed its focus to the “west-east”. The pace of cultural development of the Russian lands slowed down.

4. The struggle of the Russian people against the Swedish-German aggression.

At a time when Rus' had not yet recovered from the barbarian invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, from the west it was threatened by an enemy no less dangerous and cruel than the Asian conquerors. Even at the end of the XI century. The Pope of Rome proclaimed the beginning of the crusades against the Muslims who took possession of Palestine, on the lands of which the main Christian shrines were located. In the first crusade (1096 - 1099), the knights captured significant territories in the Middle East and founded their own states. A few decades later, European warriors began to suffer defeats from the Arabs. One by one, the crusaders lost their possessions. The Fourth Crusade (1202 - 1204) was marked by the defeat not of Muslim Arabs, but of Christian Byzantium.

During the crusades, knightly-monastic orders were created, called upon by fire and sword to convert the vanquished to the Christian faith. They also wanted to conquer the peoples of Eastern Europe. In 1202, the Order of the Sword-bearers was formed in the Baltic States (knights wore clothes depicting a sword and a cross). Back in 1201, the knights landed at the mouth of the Western Dvina (Daugava) River and founded the city of Riga on the site of the Latvian settlement as a stronghold for subjugating the Baltic lands.

In 1219, the Danish knights captured part of the Baltic coast, setting up the city of Revel (Tallinn) on the site of the Estonian settlement. In 1224 the crusaders took Yuriev (Tartu).

To conquer the lands of Lithuania (Prussians) and the southern Russian lands in 1226, the knights of the Teutonic Order, founded in 1198 in Syria during the Crusades, arrived. Knights - members of the order wore white cloaks with a black cross on the left shoulder. In 1234, the Swordsmen were defeated by the Novgorod-Suzdal troops, and two years later, by the Lithuanians and Semigallians. This forced the crusaders to join forces. In 1237, the swordsmen united with the Teutons, forming a branch of the Teutonic Order - the Livonian Order, named after the territory inhabited by the Liv tribe, which was captured by the Crusaders.

The knights of the Livonian Order set themselves the goal of subjugating the peoples of the Baltic and Rus' and converting them to Catholicism. Prior to this, the Swedish knights launched an offensive against Russian lands. In 1240 the Swedish fleet entered the mouth of the Neva River. The plans of the Swedes included the capture of Staraya Ladoga, and then Novgorod. The Swedes were defeated by the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich. The young prince with a small squad secretly approached the enemy camp. A detachment of militia led by a Novgorodian Misha cut off the enemy's retreat. This victory brought the twenty-year-old prince great fame. For her, Prince Alexander was nicknamed Nevsky.

The Battle of the Neva was an important stage in this struggle. The victory of the Russian army, led by our great ancestor Alexander Nevsky, prevented the loss of the shores of the Gulf of Finland and a complete economic blockade of Rus', did not allow interrupting its trade exchange with other countries, and thereby facilitated the further struggle of the Russian people for independence, for the overthrow of the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

In the same 1240, a new invasion of the North-West of Rus' began. Knights of the Livonian Order captured the Russian fortress of Izborsk. When this became known in Pskov, the local militia, which included "all to the soul" combat-ready Pskovians, opposed the knights; however, the Pskovites were defeated by superior enemy forces. In an unequal battle, the princely governor in Pskov also fell.

German troops besieged Pskov for a whole week, but they could not take it by force. If not for the traitorous boyars, the invaders would never have taken the city, which in its history withstood 26 sieges and never opened the gates to the enemy. Even the German chronicler, himself a military man, believed that the Pskov fortress, provided the unity of its defenders, was impregnable. The pro-German group among the Pskov boyars has existed for a long time. It was noted in the annals as early as 1228, when the traitorous boyars entered into an alliance with Riga, but then this group kept a low profile, having Tverdila Ivankovich among its supporters. After the defeat of the Pskov troops and the death of the princely voivode, these boyars, who “transfer more firmly with the Germans”, first achieved that Pskov gave the children of the local nobility to the crusaders as a pledge, then some time passed “without peace”, and finally, the boyar Tverdilo and others "brought" the knights to Pskov (taken in 1241).

Relying on the German garrison, the traitor Tverdylo "he himself often owns Plskov with the Germans ...". His power was only an appearance; in fact, the Germans took over the entire state apparatus. The boyars, who did not agree to treason, fled with their wives and children to Novgorod. Tverdylo and his supporters helped the German invaders. Thus, they betrayed the Russian land, and the Russian people, the working people who inhabited cities and villages, were robbed and ruined, putting on them the yoke of German feudal oppression.

By this time, Alexander, who had quarreled with the Novgorod boyars, left the city. When Novgorod was in danger (the enemy was 30 km from its walls), Alexander Nevsky returned to the city at the request of the veche. And again the prince acted decisively. With a swift blow, he liberated the Russian cities captured by the enemy.

Alexander Nevsky won his most famous victory in 1242. On April 5, a battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi, which went down in history as the Ice Battle. At the beginning of the battle, the German knights and their Estonian allies, advancing in a wedge, broke through the advanced Russian regiment. But the soldiers of Alexander Nevsky launched flank attacks and surrounded the enemy. The crusader knights fled: "And they chased them, beating them, seven miles across the ice." According to the Novgorod chronicle, 400 knights were killed in the Battle of the Ice, and 50 were captured. Perhaps these figures are somewhat overestimated. German chronicles wrote about 25 dead and 6 prisoners, apparently underestimating the losses of their knights. However, they were forced to admit the fact of defeat.

The significance of this victory is that: the power of the Livonian Order was weakened; began the growth of the liberation struggle in the Baltic states. In 1249, papal ambassadors offered Prince Alexander help in the fight against the Mongol conquerors. Alexander realized that the papal throne was trying to draw him into a difficult struggle with the Mongol-Tatars, thereby making it easier for the German feudal lords to seize Russian lands. The proposal of the papal ambassadors was rejected.

Test 5

Set match:

1. Election by the Zemsky Sobor to the kingdom of Mikhail Romanov.
2. Accession to the kingdom of Alexei Mikhailovich.
3. Cathedral Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.

1. The election by the Zemsky Sobor to the kingdom of Mikhail Romanov - A. 1613
2. Accession to the kingdom of Alexei Mikhailovich - B.).

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Opinions What consequences did the yoke have for Rus'? Some historians point to the positive consequences of the yoke in terms of the formation of prerequisites for the creation of a unified Russian state. Others emphasize that the yoke did not have a significant impact on the internal development of Rus'. Most scholars agree on the following: the raids caused the heaviest material damage, were accompanied by the death of the population, the devastation of villages, the ruin of cities; the tribute that went to the Horde depleted the country, made it difficult to restore and develop the economy; Southern Rus' actually separated from the North-Western and North-Eastern, their historical destinies diverged for a long time; Rus''s ties with European states were interrupted; won tendencies to arbitrariness, despotism, autocracy of princes.

Rus' vs Tatar-Mongols

Chronology:

1223 G- the battle on the Kalka River between the Russian-Polovtsian and Mongolian troops. Not all Russian princes, who promised to participate in the battle, put up their troops, some were late. The princes - participants in the battle acted unfriendly. The Kyiv prince Mstislav Romanovich generally stood aside with his army, watching how the squads of other princes were exhausted in battle. The battle ended with the defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian troops, many princes and combatants died. As a result of this battle, the Polovtsy state was destroyed, and the Polovtsy themselves became part of the state created by the Mongols.

1237-38 - Campaign Batu Campaign to the North-Eastern Rus'. At the end of 1237, Batu moved to the Ryazan principality, Ryazan was taken after 5 days, looted and burned. Then there were battles near Kolomna, again Batu defeated everyone and went to Vladimir, besieged, burned, ravaged the Vladimir-Suzdal land, everything is bad. AT 1238 a battle took place on the City River (a tributary of the Mologa, northwest of Uglich), the battle ended in defeat, most of the princes and troops died. Another detachment of Batu's troops at that time took Torzhok. Despite the victoriousness of the first campaign of Batu, his army took each city after the battle, incurring certain losses.

1239-41 - the second campaign of Batu to Rus': captured, burned Murom, Gorokhovets, then in 1240 - Kyiv after a three-month siege (Daniil Galitsky, who owned Kyiv, was not in the city, they say that he was in Hungary, then the Mongol troops moved to Galicia-Volynskaya Rus' Taking Vladimir Volynsky, Galich, in 1241, Batu went to Europe (he was tired and everything was not so successful for him there).

Why is everything so bad?

It is traditionally believed that defeats are to blame fragmentation , in which each of the principalities was alone with the forces of the invaders. In addition, Batu had a cool Chinese military equipment : wall-beating machines, stone throwers (inherited after the conquest of Northern China and Central Asia). Same way outnumbered Mongol-Tatar army.

Karatsuba, Kurukin and Sokolov also write that, in fact, it was necessary to turn to the help of an external ally - the West. Daniil Galitsky worked hard on this - he negotiated with Rome, but Alexander Yaroslavich (Nevsky) enlisted the support of the horde, received a label to reign, so he was against it, although he had previously negotiated with the “brothers of the Teutonic Order”.

What consequences?

The classic version - huge losses. “The consequences of the invasion were extremely severe. First of all, the population of the country has sharply decreased. Many people were killed, no less were taken into slavery. Many cities have been destroyed. For example, the capital of the Ryazan principality now turned out to be the city of Pereyaslavl Ryazan (from the end of the 18th century - Ryazan). The ruined Ryazan could not be restored. Now in its place is a settlement overgrown with bushes, where extremely interesting excavations were carried out, and the village of Staraya Ryazan. Kyiv was abandoned, in which no more than 200 houses remained. Archaeologists near Berdichev discovered the so-called Raykovets settlement: a city completely destroyed during the Batu invasion. All the inhabitants died at the same time. Life on the site of this city was no longer revived. Some crafts (glass) have been lost. BUT The nomadic Mongols were unable to set themselves the task of including the Russian land, an agricultural country, into their empire. It was only about submission, about receiving tribute. Therefore, the very nature of internal relations remained largely unaffected by the conquerors.

Rus' VS GERMAN-SWEDISH, DANISH FEODAL FEODAL

Chronology:

1240 - the victory of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich of Novgorod at that time on the Neva over the Swedes, after which he became Nevsky.

April 5 1242 - "Battle on the Ice" on Lake Peipsi, Alexander Nevsky defeated the German knights.

How to evaluate it?

The significance of the victory on the Neva is usually greatly exaggerated: the Swedish campaign was of a reconnaissance nature, which determined the size of the detachment (more on this in Pavlenko's textbook). Karatsuba and others like him generally write that the myth of the epoch-making battle on the Neva was started by the anti-Catholic Metropolitan Kirill, then it was inflated by the diplomats of Peter, who needed a predecessor on the banks of the Neva, and completed by the scribes of the Stalin era. In general, it was one of the clashes that regularly took place in the "buffer zone".

As for the famous "Battle on the Ice", not everything is clear either. In the Soviet version - "a limit was placed on the predatory advance to the east." But there was also a mutual struggle for spheres of influence in the Baltics. In addition, in 1242, Alexander Yaroslavich ravaged the German prison, "liberated" Pskov, who did not think about it at all, and led the army into the lands of the Chud to fight "in prosperity", that is, to ruin the economy, but after an unsuccessful skirmish with the Germans turned back. The scale of the battle is also not clear: in the Novgorod chronicle - 400 killed, 50 wounded Germans, in the Livonian "Rhymed Chronicle" - 20 killed and 6 captured.

A little more about Alexander Yaroslavich

Historian Anton Gorsky (in the book of Karatsuba...): in the actions of Alexander Yaroslavich one should not look for “some kind of conscious, fateful choice. He was a man of his era, acted in accordance with the worldview of that time and personal experience. Alexander was, in modern terms, a "pragmatist": he chose the path that seemed to him beneficial for strengthening his land and himself. When it was a decisive battle, he fought, when it was an agreement with one of the enemies of Rus', he went to an agreement. In general, an alliance with the horde made it easier for the prince to tame the obstinate veche cities, an alliance with the West would inevitably draw Rus' into the system of European law.

Historian Mikhail Sokolsky (in Karatsuba’s book…): “The shame of Russian historical consciousness, Russian historical memory is that Alexander Nevsky has become an indisputable concept of national pride, has become a fetish, has become the banner not of a sect or party, but of the very people whose historical destiny he is severely abused."

1. Prince Daniel Romanovich, who defeated in the first half of the XIII century. troops of crusader knights, ruled in ...
a) Novgorod the Great;
b) Galician principality;
c) Vladimir-Suzdal principality;
d) Ryazan principality.

2. The battle on the Kalka River was preceded by the conquest by the Tatar-Mongols ...
a) Vladimir-Suzdal land;
b) the cities of Central Asia - Bukhara, Samarkand, Urgench;
c) Ryazan;
d) Kyiv.

3. In 1240, the Novgorodians in the battle on the Neva River defeated:
a) Danes
b) Livonian knights;
c) Swedes;
d) Lithuanians.

4. The executive power in Novgorod the Great was exercised by:
a) veche; b) prince; c) posadnik; d) metropolitan.

5. Mark in the answer sheet the number of the item that can be put in place of the question mark in the diagram:

a) the lack of a sufficient number of professional
warriors;
b) the general decline of Rus';
c) the aggression of the German feudal lords;
d) unwillingness of the population to defend their cities.

6. The reason for the victory of Alexander Nevsky on the ice of Lake Peipsi is ...
a) overwhelming numerical superiority in the army;
b) surprise attack by A. Nevsky;
c) tactically correct formation of troops;
d) the use of throwing weapons.

7. Novgorod princes in the XII century performed:
a) had an unlimited opportunity to buy land in Novgorod;
b) exclusively official functions;
c) received unlimited income from certain possessions for service.

8. The most powerful prince in Rus' at the end of the XII-beginning of the XIII century was:
a) Vladimir Monomakh;
b) Dmitry Donskoy;
c) Vsevolod the Big Nest.

9. The Russian prince at the end of the 13th century - the first half of the 14th century had the right to take the throne in the event of:
a) the consent of the Boyar Duma;
b) blessings of the metropolitan;
c) receiving a label to reign in the Golden Horde.

10. Roman Mstislavich in the late XII - early XIII centuries. reigned in:
a) Smolensk and Turavo-Pinsk principalities;
b) Galicia-Volyn and Kiev principalities;
c) Vladimir-Suzdal and Ryazan principalities.

The XIII century in the history of Rus' is the time of armed opposition to the onslaught from the east (Mongol-Tatars) and the north-west (Germans, Swedes, Danes).

Mongol-Tatars came to Rus' from the depths of Central Asia. The empire formed in 1206, headed by Khan Temuchin, who took the title of Khan of all Mongols (Genghis Khan), by the 30s. 13th century subjugated northern China, Korea, Central Asia, Transcaucasia. In 1223, in the Battle of Kalka, the combined army of Russians and Polovtsy was defeated by a 30,000-strong Mongols detachment. Genghis Khan refused to advance to the southern Russian steppes. Rus' received an almost fifteen-year respite, but could not take advantage of it: all attempts to unite, stop civil strife were in vain.

In 1236, the grandson of Genghis Khan, Baty, began a campaign against Rus'. Having conquered the Volga Bulgaria, in January 1237 he invaded the Ryazan principality, ruined it and moved on to Vladimir. The city, despite fierce resistance, fell, and on March 4, 1238, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich was killed in the battle on the Sit River. Having taken Torzhok, the Mongols could go to Novgorod, but the spring thaw and heavy losses forced them to return to the Polovtsian steppes. This movement to the southeast is sometimes called the "Tatar raid": along the way, Batu plundered and burned Russian cities, which courageously fought against the invaders. Especially fierce was the resistance of the inhabitants of Kozelsk, nicknamed by the enemies of the "evil city". In 1238-1239. Mongo-lo-Tatars conquered Murom, Pereyaslav, Chernigov principalities.

North-Eastern Rus' was devastated. Batu turned south. The heroic resistance of the inhabitants of Kyiv was broken in December 1240. In 1241, the Galicia-Volyn principality fell. The Mongolian hordes invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, went to Northern Italy and Germany, but, exhausted by the desperate resistance of the Russian troops, deprived of reinforcements, retreated and returned to the steppes of the Lower Volga region. Here, in 1243, the state of the Golden Horde (the capital of Sarai-Batu) was created, whose dominion was forced to recognize the devastated Russian lands. A system was established that went down in history under the name of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The essence of this system, spiritually humiliating and economically predatory, was that: Russian principalities were not included in the Horde, they retained their own reigns; princes, especially the Grand Duke of Vladimir, received a label to reign in the Horde, which confirmed their stay on the throne; they had to pay a large tribute ("exit") to the Mongol rulers. Population censuses were carried out, norms for collecting tribute were established. The Mongolian garrisons left the Russian cities, but before the beginning of the XIV century. the collection of tribute was carried out by authorized Mongolian officials - the Baskaks. In case of disobedience (and anti-Mongol uprisings often broke out), punitive detachments - rati - were sent to Rus'.

Two important questions arise: why did the Russian principalities, having shown heroism and courage, fail to repulse the conquerors? What consequences did the yoke have for Rus'? The answer to the first question is obvious: of course, the military superiority of the Mongol-Tatars mattered (tough discipline, excellent cavalry, well-organized intelligence, etc.), but the disunity of the Russian princes, their strife, inability to unite even in the face of a mortal threat played a decisive role.

The second question is controversial. Some historians point to the positive consequences of the yoke in terms of the formation of prerequisites for the creation of a unified Russian state. Others emphasize that the yoke did not have a significant impact on the internal development of Rus'. Most scholars agree on the following: the raids caused the heaviest material damage, were accompanied by the death of the population, the devastation of villages, the ruin of cities; the tribute that went to the Horde depleted the country, made it difficult to restore and develop the economy; Southern Rus' actually separated from the North-Western and North-Eastern, their historical destinies diverged for a long time; Rus''s ties with European states were interrupted; won tendencies to arbitrariness, despotism, autocracy of princes.

Having been defeated by the Mongol-Tatars, Rus' was able to successfully resist the aggression from the northwest. By the 30s. 13th century The Baltic region, inhabited by the tribes of Livs, Yotvingians, Estonians, and others, was at the mercy of the German crusader knights. The actions of the crusaders were part of the policy of the Holy Roman Empire and the papacy to subjugate the pagan peoples to the Catholic Church. That is why the main instruments of aggression were spiritual and knightly orders: the Order of the Sword (founded in 1202) and the Teutonic Order (founded at the end of the 12th century in Palestine). In 1237, these orders merged into the Livonian Order. A powerful and aggressive military-political formation was established on the borders with Novgorod land, ready to take advantage of the weakening of Rus' to include its northwestern lands in the zone of imperial influence.

In July 1240, the nineteen-year-old Novgorod prince Alexander in a short-lived battle defeated Birger's Swedish detachment at the mouth of the Neva. For the victory in the Battle of the Neva, Alexander received the honorary nickname Nevsky. In the same summer, the Livonian knights became more active: Izborsk and Pskov were captured, the border fortress of Koporye was erected. Prince Alexander Nevsky managed to return Pskov in 1241, but the decisive battle took place on April 5, 1242 on the melted ice of Lake Peipsi (hence the name - Battle on the Ice). Knowing about the favorite tactics of the knights - building in the form of a tapering wedge ("pig"), the commander applied flank coverage and defeated the enemy. Dozens of knights died, falling through the ice, unable to withstand the weight of heavily armed infantry. The relative safety of the northwestern borders of Rus', Novgorod land was ensured.

10. Formation of the state

Having won victories over the Tatars and Keraites, Temujin began to streamline his people-army. In the winter of 1203-1204, a series of reforms were prepared that laid the foundation for the Mongol state.

· The most important reform concerned the reorganization of the army, which was divided into thousands, hundreds and tens. Thus, manageability and discipline were improved, and most importantly, the generic principle of organizing troops was eradicated. Now promotion was determined by personal abilities and devotion to the khan, and not by proximity to the tribal aristocracy.

· Temujin also learned from the recent war, when he managed to capture Wang Khan's unguarded headquarters almost without hindrance. A special corps of keshiktens was created, a kind of personal guard of the khan, which was divided into two parts: turgauds - day guards, and kebteuls - night guards (70 and 80 people, respectively).

· In addition, an elite unit was organized from a thousand bagaturs - the best warriors, who received this honorary title for military merit.

The defeat of the Naimans and Merkits and the execution of Jamukha in the autumn of 1205 drew a line under the long steppe war. Temujin had no rivals left in the eastern part of the Great Steppe, the Mongols were ready to appear on the arena of world history.

In March 1206, a kurultai gathered near the source of the Onon River, where Temujin was elected great khan with the title of Genghis Khan. The creation of the Great Mongol State was proclaimed. The principle of decimal division extended not only to the army, but to the whole people. A thousand, a hundred and a dozen now called such a number of people who had to put up the corresponding number of soldiers. “Let them write down in the Blue painting“ Coco Defter-Bichik ”, then linking them into books, painting according to the expansion into parts of all-lingual subjects” . The entire structure of the state was subordinated to the main goal - war.

As for innovations directly in the army, an even larger military unit stood out here - tumen (ten thousand). The personal guard of the khan increased to the size of a tumen, it included a thousand bagaturs. An ordinary keshikten was higher in rank than any commander of an ordinary military

divisions, including the thousandth.

Mongol conquests - wars and campaigns of the armies of Genghis Khan and his descendants in the 13th century. in Asia and Eastern Europe. In 1207-11. many peoples of Siberia and East Turkestan are subordinated. In 1211-34. Northern China was conquered, in 1215 - Semirechye, in 1219-21. - Middle Asia. In 1222-23. campaigns in Transcaucasia and the North Caucasus. In 1223, the victory over the Russian-Polovtsian army on the Kalka River. In 1231-1273. the conquest of Korea, in 1232 the defeat of the Volga-Kama Bulgaria. In 1237-1241. Batu Khan's invasion of Rus'. In 1241-42. wars in Poland, Hungary, the Balkans. In the 2nd half of the 13th c. seizure of territories in East and Southeast Asia. The Mongol conquests led to the devastation of vast regions, the conquest of many peoples, the destruction of cities and cultural monuments. States emerged in the occupied territories: the Golden Horde, the state of the Khulaguids, etc.

Igo and the discussion of his role in the formation of the Russian state

The leading role in its formation was played by a foreign policy factor - the need to confront the Horde and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Such a “leading” (in relation to socio-economic development) nature of the process determined the features of the developed by the end of the 15th - 16th centuries. states: strong monarchical power, rigid dependence of the ruling class on it, a high degree of exploitation of direct producers.

Decisive steps in the creation of a unified Russian state were made by the son of Vasily the Dark, Ivan III. Ivan stayed on the throne for 43 years. The blind father early made Ivan a co-ruler and Grand Duke, and he quickly gained worldly experience and a habit of business. Ivan, who began as one of the specific princes, became in his life the sovereign of a single nation.

By the mid-70s, the Yaroslavl and Rostov principalities were finally annexed to Moscow. After 7 years of diplomatic and military struggle, in 1478 Ivan III managed to subjugate the vast Novgorod Republic. At the same time, the veche was liquidated, the symbol of Novgorod freedom - the veche bell was taken to Moscow. The confiscation of Novgorod lands, unprecedented in its scale, began. They were transferred into the possession of the servants of Ivan III. Finally, in 1485, as a result of a military campaign, the Tver principality was annexed to Moscow. From now on, the vast majority of the northeastern Russian lands were part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Ivan III became known as the Sovereign of All Rus'. In general, a single state was created and finally approved its independence.

Already in 1476, Ivan III refused to go to the Horde and send money. In 1480, the Nogai Horde separated from the Great Horde. At the end of the first quarter of the 15th century, the Crimean Khanate was formed, in the second quarter - the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberia. Horde Khan Akhmat moved to Rus'. He entered into an alliance with the Lithuanian prince Casimir and gathered a 100,000-strong army. Ivan III hesitated for a long time, making a choice between an open struggle with the Mongols and accepting the humiliating terms of surrender proposed by Akhmat. But by the autumn of 1480, he managed to come to an agreement with his rebellious brothers, and even in the newly annexed Novgorod it became calmer. In early October, the rivals met on the banks of the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka). Casimir did not appear on the battlefield, and Akhmat waited for him in vain. Meanwhile, early snow covered the grass, the cavalry became useless and the Tatars retreated. Khan Akhmat soon died in the Horde, and the Golden Horde finally ceased to exist. The 240-year-old Horde yoke fell.

The name "Russia" is the Greek, Byzantine name for Rus'. It came into use in Muscovite Rus' in the second half of the 15th century, when, after the fall of Constantinople and the liquidation of the Horde yoke, the Grand Duchy of Moscow, being the only independent Orthodox state, began to be regarded by its rulers as the ideological and political successor of the Byzantine Empire.

Association around Moscow

The situation was different in North-Eastern Rus', where the Rurikoviches, the descendants of Monomakh, still ruled: there were several large principalities that fought with each other for control of the Vladimir Grand Prince's table. From the beginning of the XIV century, the Grand Dukes of Vladimir began to bear the title with the prefix "all Rus'", but their real power was limited only to the territory of Vladimir land and Novgorod. In the struggle for the possession of Vladimir, the advantage gradually turned out to be on the side of the Moscow principality, largely due to the close connection of the latter with the Horde.

North-Western Rus' (Novgorod and Pskov) continued to be an autonomous unit, maneuvering between the two centers, although since the time of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, Novgorod, with rare exceptions, was subordinate to the Vladimir princes (in 1333, the Lithuanian prince Narimunt Gediminovich was invited to the Novgorod table for the first time).

The further development of the two Russian states followed different historical paths. Between the lands that became part of them, the increase in differences progressed. In the Moscow principality, under the influence of the Horde, a centralized system of government with authoritarian princely power developed, the nobility was in the position of princely servants. The Lithuanian principality, partially preserving the traditions of the principalities of Kievan Rus, acted on the principle of "old times", developed according to Central European models, with the preservation of vassal relations between the nobility and the prince, the autonomy of cities and some democratic institutions (sejms, the absence of serfdom, the Lithuanian Statute).

The unifying role of Lithuania decreased after the Lithuanian prince Jagiello began to pursue a policy of unification with Catholic Poland. In 1386, he concluded the Union of Krevo and became the Polish king. According to the Union of Lublin in 1569, Lithuania and Poland merged into one state - the Commonwealth, and subsequently irresolvable confessional contradictions arose there.

The unification of North-Eastern Rus' was completed in the reign of Ivan III (the annexation of Novgorod in 1478, Tver (1485)) and Vasily III (the liquidation of the formal autonomy of Pskov (1510) and Ryazan (1518)). Ivan III also became the first sovereign ruler of Russia, refusing to obey the Khan of the Horde. He took the title of Sovereign of All Rus', thereby claiming all Russian lands.

The end of the 15th - the beginning of the 16th centuries became a kind of frontier, until which the lands annexed to Russia formed a single whole with it. The process of joining the rest of the legacy of Ancient Rus' dragged on for another two centuries; by this time, their own ethnic processes had gained strength there. In 1654 Left-Bank Ukraine joined Russia. In 1686 the unity of the church was restored. The lands of the Right-bank Ukraine and Belarus became part of the Russian Empire as a result of the second partition of Poland in 1793.

12. Great geographical discoveries- a period in the history of mankind that began in the 15th century and lasted until the 17th century, during which Europeans discovered new lands and sea routes to Africa, America, Asia and Oceania in search of new trading partners and sources of goods that were in great demand in Europe. Historians usually relate the "Great Discoveries" to the pioneering long-distance sea voyages of Portuguese and Spanish travelers in search of alternative trade routes to the "India" for gold, silver and spices.

The Portuguese began a systematic exploration of the Atlantic coast of Africa in 1418 under the auspices of Prince Henry, eventually circumnavigating Africa and entering the Indian Ocean in 1488. In 1492, in search of a trade route to Asia, the Spanish monarchs approved Christopher Columbus's plan to travel west across the Atlantic in search of the "Indies". He landed on an uncharted continent, opening the "New World," America, to Europeans. In order to prevent conflict between Spain and Portugal, the Treaty of Tordesillas was concluded, according to which the world was divided into two parts, where each side received exclusive rights to the lands they discovered. In 1498, a Portuguese expedition led by Vasco da Gama was able to reach India, circumnavigating Africa and opening a direct trade route to Asia. The Portuguese soon moved further east, reaching the Spice Islands in 1512 and landing in China a year later. In 1522, the expedition of Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese in the service of the Spanish, went west, making the world's first circumnavigation. Meanwhile, the Spanish conquistadors explored the American continent and later some of the South Pacific islands. In 1495, the French and English and, a little later, the Dutch entered the race to discover new lands, challenging the Iberian monopoly on maritime trade routes and exploring new routes, first north, then across the Pacific around South America, but ultimately following by the Portuguese around Africa to the Indian Ocean; discovering Australia in 1606, New Zealand in 1642 and the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. Meanwhile, from the 1580s to the 1640s, Russian pioneers discovered and conquered almost all of Siberia.

The great geographical discoveries contributed to the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age, along with the Renaissance and the rise of European nation-states. It is believed that the maps of distant lands, reproduced using the new printing press, contributed to the development of a humanistic worldview and the expansion of horizons, giving rise to a new era of scientific and intellectual curiosity. The advancement of Europeans into new lands led to the creation and rise of colonial empires, during contacts between the Old and New Worlds, a Columbus exchange took place: plants, animals, food, entire peoples (including slaves), infectious diseases moved around the planet, and there was also a cultural exchange between civilizations, it was one of the most important stages of globalization in ecology, agriculture and culture in history. European discoveries (English) Russian. continued after the Age of Discovery, as a result of which the entire surface of the globe was mapped, and distant civilizations were able to meet each other.

13. Reformation (lat. reformatio - correction, restoration) - a mass religious and socio-political movement in Western and Central Europe of the 16th - early 17th centuries, aimed at reforming Catholic Christianity in accordance with the Bible.

Its beginning is considered to be the speech of Martin Luther, doctor of theology at Wittenberg University: on October 31, 1517, he nailed his “95 theses” to the doors of the Wittenberg Castle Church, in which he opposed the existing abuses of the Catholic Church, in particular against the sale of indulgences [approx. one]. Historians consider the end of the Reformation to be the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, as a result of which the religious factor ceased to play a significant role in European politics.

The main reason for the Reformation was the struggle between the emerging capitalist relations and the then dominant feudal system, on the protection of the ideological boundaries of which the Catholic Church stood. The interests and aspirations of the emerging capitalist class following the Reformation found expression in the founding of Protestant churches calling for modesty, economy and accumulation of capital, as well as the formation of nation-states in which the interests of the church no longer played a major role.

Protestantism spread throughout Europe in the creeds of the followers of Luther (Lutheranism), John Calvin (Calvinism), the "Zwickau prophets" (Anabaptism), Ulrich Zwingli (Zwinglianism), as well as Anglicanism that arose in a special way.

The set of measures taken by the Catholic Church and the Jesuits to combat the Reformation was called the Counter-Reformation.

Results of the Reformation

The results of the reform movement cannot be characterized unambiguously. On the one hand, the Catholic world, which united all the peoples of Western Europe under the spiritual leadership of the Pope, ceased to exist. The single Catholic Church was replaced by a plurality of national churches, which were often dependent on secular rulers, whereas before the clergy could appeal to the pope as an arbiter. On the other hand, national churches contributed to the growth of the national consciousness of the peoples of Europe. At the same time, the cultural and educational level of the inhabitants of Northern Europe, which had previously been, as it were, the outskirts of the Christian World, increased significantly - the need to study the Bible led to the growth of both primary educational institutions (mainly in the form of parochial schools) and higher ones, which was expressed in the creation of universities for the training of national churches. For some languages, writing was specially developed in order to be able to publish the Bible in them.

The proclamation of spiritual equality stimulated the development of ideas about political equality. So, in countries where the majority were Reformed, the laity had great opportunities in managing the church, and citizens - in managing the state.

The main achievement of the Reformation was that it significantly contributed to the change of old feudal economic relations to new capitalist ones. The desire for economy, for the development of industry, for the rejection of expensive entertainment (as well as expensive worship services) contributed to the accumulation of capital, which was invested in trade and production. As a result, the Protestant states began to outstrip the Catholic and Orthodox ones in economic development. Even the very ethics of Protestants contributed to the development of the economy