In n karl x domestic policy. The main directions of foreign and domestic policy of Charlemagne

From 1824 to 1830, the King of France, Charles X, was overthrown by the July Revolution of 1830. Not all French people were happy about the return of the Bourbons. “The monarchy was greeted with enthusiasm by one tenth of the population; three-tenths joined her out of prudence; the rest of the French, that is, the majority, hesitated, treating her with distrust, rather even hostile, ”wrote the French historian Henri Gousse (History of the 19th century / Edited by Lavisse and Rambo. In 8 vol. T. 2. M ., 1938, p. 352).

Notes from the book are used: Diary of Pavel Pushchin. 1812-1814. Publishing house of the Leningrad University, 1987.

Charles X (9.X.1757 - 6.XI.1836) - French king (1824-1830) from the Bourbon dynasty; before taking the throne, he held the title of Count d "Artois. During the French bourgeois revolution of the late 18th century, he was in exile, was one of the organizers of the intervention against revolutionary France. From the beginning of the Restoration (during the reign in 1814 and 1815-1824 of his elder brother Louis XVIII ) around the Count d "Artois, the most reactionary representatives of the noble aristocracy and the higher clergy were grouped. Having taken the throne, Charles X pursued an extremely reactionary foreign and domestic policy (support for the counter-revolutionary forces in Spain, repressions against the liberal democratic press, publication of the anti-democratic July Ordinances of 1830, etc.). He was overthrown by the July Revolution of 1830 and fled France.

Soviet historical encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 7. KARAKEEV - KOSHAKER. 1965.

"Crown Pillar". Decamp's caricature of Charles X/

Charles X
King of France
Charles X
Years of life: October 9, 1757 - November 6, 1836
Reigned: September 16, 1824 - August 2, 1830
Father: Dauphin Louis
Mother: Maria Josepha of Saxony
Wife: Marie-Therese of Savoy
Sons: Louis, Karl-Ferdinand
Daughter: Sofia

In his youth, Karl spent his time in luxury and idleness and had many love affairs. Unlike his older brothers, he was a narrow-minded, but energetic person. At the very beginning of the revolution, Count Artois (this title was granted to Charles at birth) insisted on suppressing the rebellion with the most decisive measures, but after the capture of the Bastille he was forced to flee abroad. Charles was the indispensable organizer of all counter-revolutionary military actions, including the Vendée uprising of 1795, but the defeat of the royalists forced him to moderate his ardor. Until 1814 he lived in England. Near death, his mistress, the Countess de Polastron, bequeathed to Karl to change his lifestyle. Fulfilling her will, Karl stopped his wild life and turned to God.

During the first restoration, Charles entered Paris before Louis XVIII and ruled France for several days as viceroy. During the Hundred Days, his brother sent him to Lyon to command the army, but the royal army in full strength went over to the side of Napoleon, and Charles was forced to flee.

During the second restoration, Charles was in opposition to his brother. He was majestic, elegant, energetic and knightly noble, but he had a limited outlook and was full of aristocratic prejudices. He denounced the king's overly liberal policies and made no secret of his ultra-royalist views.

When Charles ascended the throne in 1824, he was already 66 years old. He was determined to restore the regime that existed before 1789 in France. First of all, 250 Napoleonic generals were dismissed from the army, the law "On sacrilege" and the law "On the billion" were adopted, giving the right to compensation to emigrants who suffered during the years of the revolution. In 1829, the king put the Duke of Polignac at the head of the government, who was instructed to develop more radical laws. On July 25, 1830, ordinances appeared on the abolition of freedom of the press, the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, the increase in the electoral qualification and the appointment of new elections to the Chamber. This led to the beginning of riots. The next day, Polignac was almost torn to pieces by demonstrators. On July 27, most printing houses were closed, and outraged Parisians began to take to the streets. On July 28, barricades appeared in the streets. The royal troops went on the offensive, but were driven back to the Louvre. On the morning of July 29, an armed crowd stormed the palace. Troops loyal to the king, including the Swiss Guard, fled. On the night of July 29-30, the king agreed to the resignation of Polignac and the cancellation of the ordinances, but it was too late. On August 1, Charles appointed the Duke of Orleans as viceroy of the kingdom, and the next day he abdicated in favor of the grandson of Henry of Bordeaux, after which he sailed for England.

After living for several years in England and Scotland, Karl moved to Prague, where part of the palace in Hradcany was allocated to his family. In 1836, he decided to move to the small town of Hertz, but on the way he fell ill with cholera and died soon after his arrival.

Used material from the site http://monarchy.nm.ru/

Charles X (1757-1836) - King of France from the dynasty Bourbon, who ruled in 1824-1830. Son of the Dauphin Louis and Maria Josepha of Saxony. Wife: since November 16, 1773 Maria Theresa, daughter of King Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia.

Prince Charles, who received the title of Count d "Artois at birth, was a man not too zealous in the sciences, frivolous and stubborn. In many respects, he turned out to be the exact opposite of his more prudent and thorough older brother, the Count of Provence (later Louis XVIII). The first decades of his he spent his life in luxury and idleness and had many love affairs during this time.

With the beginning of the revolution, in the summer of 1789, the Comte d'Artois, in disputes with Louis XVI, insisted on the most decisive measures against the willful deputies of the third estate. At the same time, he compromised himself so much that immediately after the fall of the Bastille he was forced to retire abroad. Here is his court became a real center of counter-revolutionary emigration. Charles was an indispensable organizer and participant in all its main military actions against revolutionary France: the campaign of 1792, the landing on the Quiberon Peninsula and the expedition to the Vendée in 1795. The defeat of the monarchist counter-revolution forced him to moderate his ardor. England, where he lived until 1814. For many years he was in touch with the Countess de Polastron, dying in 1805, she took the word from Karl that he would stop the wild life that he had led up to now and turn to God. of this time, Count d "Artois became a zealot of morality, piety and fell under the strong influence of the confessor of his former mistress, Abbe L atila.

In 1814 Charles took an active part in the restoration of the monarchy. In March he negotiated with the Allies, and on April 12 he entered Paris and for several days before the arrival of Louis XVIII ruled France as viceroy. In March 1815, during the "Hundred Days", he was sent by his brother to Lyon to become the head of the army, but all his troops, not accepting the battle, went over to the side of Napoleon. Carl had to run. After the second restoration, Charles was invariably in opposition to his older brother. According to contemporaries, the Count d'Artois, unlike the ever-ill Louis XVIII, was always full of grandeur and energy, had graceful manners and was considered the embodiment of court elegance. He had chivalrous nobility, meek disposition and kindness of heart, but had a limited mind and narrow outlook, was bound by many aristocratic prejudices, very firm and stubborn in his few goals.He always considered excessive the political concessions that his brother made, and did not hide his ultra-royalist views.His court in the Marsan Pavilion became the center of fanatical emigrants, attempting to play the role of “counter-government.” When Charles ascended the royal throne in 1824, he was already 66 years old, but he was determined to realize all his political projects and restore in France the regime that had existed before 1789. From army, 250 Napoleonic generals were dismissed.The law on blasphemy soon adopted punished death penalty for desecration of holy gifts. Another law, "about a billion", provided for the payment of significant compensation to all emigrants who suffered losses during the revolution. An attempt was made to revive some of the abolished feudal institutions (for example, the right of primogeniture in the division of inheritance) and to limit the freedom of the press. But all these were only minor steps preparing the abolition of the constitution of 1814. In August 1829, the king appointed the Duke of Polignac at the head of the government, who was instructed to pass more radical restrictive laws. On July 25, 1830, ordinances appeared on the abolition of freedom of the press, the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, the increase in the electoral qualification and the appointment of new elections to the Chamber. When promulgating these important laws, which radically changed the political system of France, no measures were taken in case of riots. Meanwhile, already on July 26, demonstrations began in the Palais Royal. The crowd shouted: “Long live the Charter! Down with the ministers! Polignac, riding in a carriage along the boulevards, narrowly escaped reprisal. On July 27, most of the printing houses, as a result of the abolition of freedom of the press, were closed. Printing workers, scattered through the streets, carried away workers of other specialties. Excited Parisians began to build barricades. In the evening, the first clashes took place on the Rue Saint-Honore, where the troops took several barricades. On the night of July 28, an uprising organized under the leadership of the former military, the Carbonari and a small group of energetic republicans, consisting of students and workers. On the morning of 28th Street, hundreds of barricades were traversed. Around 11 o'clock in the morning, the troops made an attempt to go on the offensive, but by 3 o'clock in the afternoon they were driven back to the Louvre and began to prepare for defense. Part of the regiments went over to the side of the rebels. On the morning of July 29, the Parisians stormed the palace. The Swiss Guard was the first to flee, dragging the rest of the troops with them. Soon tricolor banners were hoisted over the Louvre and the Tuileries. The king, hunting in Saint-Cloud, realized only that day how serious the situation was. On the night of July 29-30, he agreed to the resignation of the Polignac government and canceled the ordinances. But it was too late. On July 31, the king yielded to the insistence of his daughter-in-law, the Duchess of Berry, and moved from Saint-Cloud to Trianon and then to Rambouillet. On August 1, he signed an ordinance appointing the Duke of Orleans as viceroy of the kingdom (in fact, the Duke had already accepted this title on July 31 from the deputies of the chamber). On August 2, the king abdicated in favor of his young grandson, the Duke of Bordeaux, and sailed for England on August 15. He first rented Lulworth Castle, then settled in Holyrood Castle in Scotland. In the autumn of 1832, Karl moved to Prague, where the Austrian emperor assigned part of his palace in Hradcany to the Bourbons. Finally, in 1836, he decided to move to the small town of Hertz. On the way, Karl contracted cholera and died shortly after his arrival.

All the monarchs of the world. Western Europe. Konstantin Ryzhov. Moscow, 1999.

Read further:

Angouleme (Angoulome) Louis Antoine de Bourbon(1775-1844), Duke, Prince of Trocadero (1823). The eldest son of the Count d "Artois (later the French king Charles X).

Literature:

Lamartine, A., Histoire de la Restauration, v. 1-8, P., 1851-52;

Lesur Ch.-L., Annuaire historique ou histoire politique et littéraire de l "année 1818 ..., P., 1819;

Montbel G. I. de, Dernière époque de l "histoire de Charles X, 5 ed., P., 1840.

CharlemagneCharlemagne (lat. Carolus Magnus,
fr. Charlemagne) was born like
researchers say, April 2
742 years in the family of Pepin the Short
and Bertrada or Berta, daughters
Count Lansky Calibert.
Information about the place where he appeared
to the light are contradictory:
Ingelheim castles are indicated
near Mainz and Karlheim under
Munich, as well as Aachen and
Salzburg.

Conquests of Charlemagne

Domestic politics

Domestic politics

Foreign policy

Foreign policy

Foreign policy

The collapse of the Empire of Charlemagne

FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL

INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

LIPETSK STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL HISTORY

SERGEY VEDENEEV

MAIN DIRECTIONS OF EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL

POLITICS OF CHARLES THE GREAT

final qualifying work

Lipetsk 2012

Introduction

The era of the existence of the empire of Charlemagne is an integral part of European history. The events to which this work is devoted cover the period of time from 768. to 814, that is, when Charlemagne ruled the Frankish state. German historian Arno Borst in the 70s. 20th century characterized the life of Charlemagne as follows: “Charlemagne laid the foundation for a history that still arouses the interest of specialists dealing with modern Europe; we are talking about the mutual understanding of European peoples and national divisions, about the state structure and social structures, about Christian morality and ancient education, about inexhaustible tradition and alluring freedom.” In essence, the history of the state of Charlemagne was part of the still unfinished process of building a united Europe, which vividly reminds of itself at the present time with a variety of forms and novelty. The map of Europe has undergone significant changes literally over the past two decades. Some states and unions disappeared, they were replaced by others. Europe, now striving to acquire a new political image, is undoubtedly returning to its roots, to an interethnic, multi-level structure formed by the personality of the ruler and his family, which we usually call the era of the Carolingian dynasty or the empire of Charlemagne.

Therefore, from the point of view of modern reality, namely, the flow of political and economic processes in modern Europe, the topic of this thesis seems to me extremely relevant. At present, in European states, as in the time of Charlemagne, the political, economic, religious, and territorial interests of many peoples, their economic and political elites are intertwined in the most complex way. The confrontation between Islam, especially its militant, irreconcilable teachings of Wahhabism and Christianity, is sharper than ever. This is confirmed by the events of recent years in Bosnia and Albania, the collapse of Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia, and the ever-growing crisis in the "euro zone".

When writing this work, the goal for me was, as comprehensively as possible, to consider and characterize the main directions of foreign and domestic policy of Charlemagne. Therefore, I see the main tasks facing me in the need to reveal the diversity of his ideas and ways of implementing them in the life of society.

The German historian Leopold von Ranke in his work "History of the Romanesque and Germanic peoples" (1824) spoke about the symbiosis of European peoples, about the emergence of their common history, the source of which is the empire of Charlemagne. Later Arno Borst in the book "An old scheme of lectures on the study of history" 1868. noted that in the age of the Carolingians, the West acquired a complete outline as a Christian empire that arose under the leadership of the Frankish kings, and moved away from Byzantium. The politico-theological dispute about the veneration of icons (iconoclasm), in which the influence of Charlemagne played an important role, according to Borst, also prepared the separation of the Eastern Church from Latin Christianity, which ended in 1054. schism of the United Christian Church. Borst also remarked that "the Empire of Charlemagne carried within itself a blessed beginning which inspired the European peoples with the idea of ​​a cultural community which since then ... embodies the preemptive right ...".

Belgian historian at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Henri Perenne, who also devoted a lot of attention to Charlemagne, in his book Mohammed and Charlemagne, examined in detail the period of his reign and gave him an assessment in terms of technical innovation, the massive development of new lands, and the improvement of the structure of agriculture, while noting that the reign within the framework of the Carolingian empire, a sharp economic leap was prepared, expressed, in particular, in the subsequent development of medieval cities. Another world - historical moment of that era, he considered the resettlement of the Franks to the east - on the other side of the Rhine up to the Elbe.

The only partially preserved lifetime manuscript about the life of Charlemagne, which, according to Dieter Hegermann, the Carolingian historian Eingard, served as the basis for writing a biography of the emperor, is stored in the monastery library of Corbi and is a processing of the Late Antique - Gallic heritage in the field of economy and social structure, church and culture.

Of great historical value, undoubtedly, is the manuscript of a contemporary colleague of Charlemagne, his biographer Karl Eingard "The Life of Charlemagne". To this day, it has been preserved in more than 80 lists. Already at that time, Eingard felt the need to erect a monument to the unique ruler and his “inimitable deeds”, to set off the scale of this historical figure, whose national identity will be challenged in the future by two peoples: French and German. He wrote: "Starting to describe the life, character and exploits of the sovereign ... I present to you, reader, my work, written in order to preserve the memory of the glorious and great husband." "The Life of Charlemagne" is a kind of unique work, a paramount literary and historical monument of the era. It went through a huge number of editions and was translated into the main European languages.

In the XII century. there are manuscripts of French and German monks that have come down to our time, in which Charlemagne's belonging alternately to the ancestors of the Germans, then to the ancestors of the French. The work of 1935 is devoted to the same topic. On the Eight Answers of German Historians. Charlemagne and Charlemagne". The anachronistic question about the nationality of Charlemagne, who rightfully considered himself a Frank, again arises in the book that was published in 1956. five-volume bibliography of the authors Hermann Geimpel, Theodor Heuss and Benno Reifenberg "Great Germans" and is solved in an amazing way. They conclude that Charlemagne "was not German" and there was a time when the German people simply did not exist. From this, the authors conclude that it is logical to name among the “great Germans” such figures who, even without realizing the ultimate goal, turned out to be a tool of history. Thus, they were involved in the history of the emergence of this people, determining its national character.

Published in 1965 - 1968. The five-volume study by Wolfgang Braunfels and Helmut Boyman about Charlemagne puts an end to the centuries-old dispute between the two European peoples. Based on the ancient Venetian chronicles, the 11th century code. from the monastery of Cava in southern Italy, on the annalistic manuscripts of Eingard, they conclude that already in the second decade of the IX century. Franks and Saxons were one people.

Written in 1981, translated into Russian and published in 1986. the work of the Hungarian scholar E. Gergey “History of the Papacy” tells about what happened for many centuries in the residence of the popes of Rome, about the fate and deeds of those people who occupied the papal throne, and about the struggle they waged for the spread and strengthening of influence catholic church. Avoiding the shortcomings of extreme points of view, without offending anyone's convictions, E. Geygei examines the relationship of the Carolingian dynasty with the papacy. In 1993 the book “The Origin of the Franks. V - IX centuries »Associate Professor of the Department of History of the Middle Ages of the city of Lille Stefan Lebec, where the problem of the historical roots of medieval France is considered, in the light of the latest archaeological data, with the involvement of well-known texts of primary sources. The author comes to the conclusion that the history of the state of the Franks of the early period "...was to a much lesser extent the history of abrupt changes than the history of evolutionary processes, different in nature depending on time and place." In 1996 The History of Military Art by Hans Delbrück is published, in which, using texts from sources from the Carolingian era, an analysis is given of the military construction of the empire of Charlemagne, the subsequent development of the military affairs of the Franks and other European peoples.

In 1996 - 1997 Carl Ferdinand Werner's two-volume "Franks - the forerunners of Europe" was published, which includes materials from two historical thematic exhibitions that took place in those years in Mannheim and Paris, and dedicated to the era of the Carolingian rule and the empire of Charlemagne. 1997 For the first time in Russia, the Harper Encyclopedia of Military History is published. Book 1. World history of wars 3500. BC - 1400 from R. H.". It shows the evolution of the methods of warfare, military strategy and tactics of the Carolingian era. The wars of the Franks and their influence on the way of life of the peoples of the Frankish Empire are considered. In 1999 was translated into Russian and the work of 1748 was published. French philosopher - educator Charles Louis Montesquieu, which gives an interpretation of the legislative acts of the period of the reign of the Carolingians, determines the form of government of Charlemagne by the originality of the state, its size, climate, geographical conditions, religion. In the same 1999 The work of the German historian Oskar Jaeger "World History" of 1904 is reprinted. in four volumes, the second volume of which is devoted to the history of the Middle Ages. It gives the characteristics of historical figures of the Carolingian era, which appear in vivid, lively and memorable literary sketches. This edition compares favorably with an abundance of factual material and well-chosen illustrations. One of the most complete works on the Frankish theme is the book of the German historian D. Hegerman "Charlemagne" written in 2000. and published in Russian in 2003. In it, the author sets himself the task of determining where the legend of the emperor of the Franks ends and the true story of a smart, far-sighted politician and commander begins, who turned his weak, bloodless state into a powerful empire by the power of the sword and diplomacy. Rene Musso - Gular in the book "Charlemagne" published in 2003. notes that "The history of Charlemagne is the history of the king, inextricably linked with the history of the people subject to him", which stood at the origins of federal statehood in Western Europe. All his efforts were subordinated to the main goal - the creation of the Carolingian empire. A distinctive feature of the book is the abundance of textual excerpts from various historical sources of that time. Book 2004 issue, the English scholar Norman Davis "History of Europe" consists of twelve narrative sections setting out in sequence the history of Europe from prehistoric times to 1990. Chapter IV - "The Birth of Europe" deals with the early period of medieval France, "when for the first time it is possible to recognize what we define as the European community." The empire of Charlemagne is viewed from a materialistic position, based on geology and economic resources, through the prism of art and the development of science. "The main thing in this process was the interpenetration of the classical and barbarian worlds and, as a result, the birth of the Christian community - in other words, the foundation of the Christian world." Published in 2011 The study of the Belgian historian Henri Piren "The Empire of Charlemagne and the Arab Caliphate" is devoted to the influence that the barbarian invasion of the Roman Empire had on the development of the history of Western Europe, and then the conquest of part of this territory by Muslim Arabs and its inclusion in the Arab Caliphate. A. Piren explores the separation of the East of Europe from its Western part, the decline into which the Merovingian monarchy plunged, the emergence of the Carolingian dynasty. The causes and consequences of the union of the Roman popes with the new dynasty, their break with Byzantium, emphasize the dominant role of the church and large landowners in the history of Europe in the 7th-8th centuries.

In Soviet times, works on Carolingian history, which were of a fundamental nature, were practically not published, because. This topic was considered irrelevant and even provocative. Evidence of this is published in 1957. and reissued in 1999. the second volume of the "History of military art VI - XVI centuries." Professor, Major General E. A. Razin, which describes the development of the military art of the peoples of the world, including the Franks of the Middle Ages. As the methodological basis of the monograph, "Marxist-Leninist military science", that is, the works of K. Marx and F. Engels, was taken. However, this can be said to be the only large-scale study of the military history of the Middle Ages in our country at that time. The book is written in a simple and clear language, equipped with a large number of maps. Descriptions of the battles and battle formations of the Frankish troops are understandable and interesting. 1961 under the editorship of Academician V. M. Koretsky, “An Reader of the Monuments of the Feudal State and the Law of the Countries of Europe” is published. The sources of the state of the ancient Franks, and then of France, are usually given in extracts. The purpose of the publications, as noted by V. M. Koretsky, was "to show those of them that most fully reflect the features of the feudal state system and its legal system." In the three-volume "History of France" 1972. edited by A.Z. Manfred only a few pages are devoted to Charlemagne and his empire. Reference books published bibliographic articles containing rather scanty information about the Frankish Empire and Emperor Charlemagne. In 1986 under the editorship of N. F. Kolesnitsky, the book “History of the Middle Ages” is published with rather scarce information about the reign of Charlemagne. In 1987 A collection of works from the first third of the 20th century was presented to the attention of readers. Corresponding Member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR O. A. Dobiash - Rozhdestvenskaya “Culture of the Western European Middle Ages”, which provides comprehensive information about the sources and source study of the Western Middle Ages, including the Merovingian dynasty, as well as the Carolingians.

I would like to note the work of the writer - historian Professor A.P. Lewandowski "Charlemagne. Through the empire to Europe. This is essentially a biography of an entire era - the period of formation of the medieval states of Western Europe - France, Germany, Italy. The author considers various aspects of the activity of the Frankish emperor: administrative, economic, cultural and spiritual. Traces his attempt to create an ideal state, the "City of God", on earth. The main text is accompanied by a number of interesting appendices. These include: an authorized translation of Eingard's Life of Charlemagne, the famous Capitulary on the Estates, a study on the land holdings of the Carolingians, an analysis of the separate acts of the empire.

with a break of almost a hundred years according to the edition of 1896. the work of the outstanding Russian historian D. I. Ilovaisky “Ancient History. Middle Ages. New story". Taking only facts as a basis, the author impartially showed the living life and living people of different centuries - the world of passions and the creative work of time, including the Carolingian era. In the same 1997 the 3-volume "History of Wars" by N. N. Golovkova, A. A. Egorov, V. P. Podelnikov is published in the first volume of which the causes of Charlemagne's conflicts with neighboring territories, the course of hostilities, the forces of the opposing sides, the main patterns of development of weapons and military art in the Middle Ages. The book is illustrated with diagrams, drawings, maps.

In 1999 several more works on Carolingian themes are published. This is the work of the priest-philosopher A. Men “History of Religion. Ways of Christianity”, in which one of the paragraphs tells about religious life in the empire of Charlemagne. Workshop on the history of the Middle Ages of the Voronezh State University, edited by N. I. Devyataikina, N. P. Mananchikova "Early Western European Middle Ages", which presents a selection of the most important sources on the history of the early Middle Ages, including political, religious, cultural, and social - economic topics. "History of the Middle Ages" edition, which is a classic monumental anthology of the history of the Middle Ages, compiled at the end of the 19th century (1863) by the famous Russian historian M. M. Stasyulevich, 1376 pages of its first volume were given to historical primary sources of the 5th - 9th centuries. and the works of the best writers and researchers of this period in the first half of the 19th century.

In 2000 the book "Historians of the Carolingian era" is published, edited by M. A. Timofeeva. The book includes the most vivid and informative monuments of historical thought of the 8th - 9th centuries: "The Life of Charlemagne" by Einhard, "The Annals of Xenten", "The Life of Emperor Louis" by Anonymous, "History" by Nithard, "Vedastine Annals". Their content covers the political, cultural and religious life of the Carolingian state throughout its history. All of them (with the exception of Eingard) are being translated into Russian for the first time. 2000 published a monograph by V. P. Budanova "The Barbarian World of the Great Migration Period", which is a comprehensive study of the barbarian world at the turn of antiquity and the Middle Ages.

It reveals the main historical characteristics of the Franks, explores their ethnohistorical structure and dynamics, highlights the ethnic space, the composition of tribal associations, and features of ethnosocial mobility. In the same 2000 the book of the professional military historian A. V. Shilov “100 great military leaders” is published, where he takes, first of all, the victories won in battles and how much these victories determined the course of this or that war as a criterion for assessing the greatness of Charlemagne as a military leader.

in the series "100 Great" by the publishing house "Veche", the book "100 Great Geniuses" by R. K. Balandin was published, which examines the personality of Charlemagne and his era from the point of view of achievements in the field of religion, philosophy, art, literature and science, i.e., in those areas of the spirit where the creative abilities of a person are most fully manifested.

Historical sources and research on Charlemagne and his empire were the basis for me when writing this work. As I study them, from the political chaos reigning in Western Europe at that time, the figure of Charlemagne arises in front of me, the ruler step by step creating and shaping his kingdom.

Chapter 1. Formation of the Empire of Charlemagne

1 Predecessors

In order to appreciate and understand the multifaceted personality of Emperor Charlemagne and his foreign and domestic policy, in my opinion, it is necessary to turn to the early history of the Franks. The beginning of this story, their journey to the empire of Charles, will undoubtedly allow a more complete and reliable understanding of the historical significance of the activities and personality of the emperor.

In the sources, the “Franks” are mentioned for the first time in the middle of the 3rd century, each time in connection with their militancy and their desire to settle in Roman territory. “... tribes of Saxons and Franks wandered ... All these peoples, both large and small, had no other means of subsistence, except for a sword, spear or axe. Constantly in war among themselves, these barbarian peoples seized booty and were never satisfied with it, contested one another the property of the Roman provincials, ruined and devastated, as best they could, the country that was supposed to support them. At the turn of the 5th - 6th centuries, the process of internal unification of the Franks reaches such a level that at first a not very strong tribal union begins to turn into a nationality. The formation of a single territory accelerated this process, strengthening the consciousness of a common ethnicity. “At the end of the 5th century migrations were completed by those who started them, the West German group of tribes - the Franks. The unstable way of life, accompanied by more or less frequent changes in the place of settlement of these tribes, ended, as did the process of their consolidation as a whole. Usually the emergence of the Frankish state is associated with the reign of Clovis (481 - 511). “Having killed many other kings, even his closest relatives, out of fear that they would not take away his kingdom, Clodoveus (Clovis) subjugated all of Galia to his power.” “Clovis by the end of his reign already bore the title of king. A cruel and unscrupulous "barbarian", he was distinguished by violent energy, a passion for conquest and a desire to unite all neighboring territories and tribes under his rule.

Although the Franks were still pagans, their ruler had long understood the moral strength of Christianity. Clovis adopted Christianity with his retinue in 496 or 498 and contributed to its spread among his subjects. “... the king recognized the almighty God in the trinity, was baptized in the name of the father and son and the holy spirit, was anointed with holy chrism and overshadowed by the cross of Christ. And from his army more than three thousand people were baptized.

By the beginning of the 7th century the general structure of the state, barely outlined under Clovis, was finally formed. At this time, a new, powerful family of mayordoms came to the fore; a clan that managed to secure this important title for itself and with its help subjugate other magnates. It was a clan that received the name of the Pipinids, after the name of its founder.

In 681 his descendant, also Pepin, nicknamed Gerestalsky, having won a brilliant victory over his rivals, became the sole mayor of the Frankish state, in fact, its sole ruler, finally pushing the "lazy", disenfranchised, kings of the Merovingians into the background. “... this clan (Merovingians) died out ... but it had no vitality for a long time and attracted attention with one conceited title of the king, because the power and state power were in the hands of the highest dignitaries of the court, called mayors, who actually ruled the state. “And the king had to be content with his title and show the appearance of power ... The majord took care of the administration of the kingdom and all internal and external affairs.”

Pepin Geristalsky was the great-grandfather of Charlemagne. His illegitimate son Charles, nicknamed "Martel" (Hammer), became the grandfather of Charlemagne, and his son, Pepin the Short, became the father of Charles. But it was with Charles Martel that the real power of the Pipinids began, which led them to the royal, and then the imperial throne.

Three main figures, determined the course of the history of the Franks in the V-VIII centuries, and prepared the reign of Charlemagne - Clovis, Charles Martel and Pepin the Short.

Clovis laid the first stone in the foundation of the state and the church, Karl Martel outlined the social basis of the new society, Pepin the Short strengthened and further developed the achievements of his ancestors. It can be said that he paved the way for his son, the future emperor Charles, to his dream of the "City of God".

September 24, 768 King Pepin is dead. “... the kingdom, according to the Frankish custom of succession, was equally divided between his two sons: Charles (the elder) and Carloman”, December 4, 771. Carloman died unexpectedly. "Karl, on the death of his brother, by universal consent, was proclaimed the only king of the Franks." He takes his brother's lands under his control and becomes the sole king of the Franks, depriving the widow and two young sons of Carloman of his inheritance and crown. This event seems to open the road of conquest, along which Karl will go all his later life.

2 Formation of the empire

The city begins the era of the great wars of Charles. The era of his creation of the Frankish empire. From this moment on, almost the entire time of Charles's reign will be filled with military campaigns.

The king of the Lombards Desiderius, having accepted his wife and children who had fled from Charles after the death of Carloman, demanded from the pope anointing the sons of Carloman as the legitimate heirs of his father. “... after the death of Carloman (771), his widow with her sons and the most noble of the courtiers neglected the cordiality of her brother-in-law for no apparent reason and fled to Italy to seek the protection of Desiderius, king of the Lombards.” However, Pope Adrian I categorically refused to do so, and fearing further harassment from Desiderius sent an embassy to Charles, imploring him to come to the aid of the "Holy Roman Church". "Charles, yielding to the urgent requests of the Roman Bishop Andrian, undertook a war against the Lombards." June 773. Charles began to prepare troops for a campaign to help the pope. War with Desiderius becomes inevitable. The Frankish army is heading for the Alps. Despite the resistance of the Lombards, he overcomes the mountains and besieges the Lombard capital of Pavia, along with King Desiderius, who is there. Leaving part of the army under siege, Karl with the main forces goes to Verona. Having taken the city, he captured the family of Carloman who was there (their further fate is unknown), but missed the son of Desiderius Adelgiz, who fled to Constantinople.

Rome was waiting for Charles as a savior. On April 2, on Holy Saturday, the troops solemnly entered the city. Karl walked to the church of St. Peter, and demonstrating his deep faith, he kissed all the steps of the stairs leading to the temple. Together with Pope Adrian I, he entered it. “In Rome, of all the holy and blessed places, Charles most revered the Basilica of the Holy Apostle Peter, to the treasury of which he donated a lot of gold, silver and precious stones.” On the same visit, Karl issued a new deed of gift, which greatly increased the territories promised earlier by the “donation of Pepin”. "... the lands taken from the Lombard kings are returned to Hadrian, the ruler (rektori) of the Roman church." Then the army returned to the besieged Pavia. Desiderius and his family surrendered to Charles, the treasures of the palace were distributed to the soldiers, and Desiderius and his wife were forced to take tonsure and imprisoned in a monastery. To his title "King of the Franks" Charles added "and the Lombards, the Roman patrician." “Charles, having started the war, did not stop before he forced Dysederius, who was tired of a long siege, to surrender, and forced his son, Adalgiz, on whom everyone had placed their hopes, to leave not only the state, but also Italy (774); everything taken from the inhabitants of Rome, Charles returned to them ... ".

Incited by Adelgiz, the Dukes of Friul and Spoletto plotted to seize Rome and return the dominion of the Lombards. However, Charles in 776. defeated the conspirators, subjugated the rebellious cities to his power. Adelgiz fled again, the Duke of Friul was killed. "... the governor of the Friulian duchy, who was plotting a new uprising, pacified (776) ...".

At the end of 780 the king again arrives in Pavia “But some time later, the idea came to him to look at Rome, the only ruler of the world, bow to the prince of the apostles and mentor of the peoples and present himself and his son to them. Relying on such assistants, to whom was given power in heaven and on earth, he thought to keep the conquered in obedience and overcome the difficulties of war, if any; he believed at the same time that it would be of great help to him if he and his sons accepted the signs of royal dignity from the vicar of the apostles and his pastoral blessing ... After everything that was to be expected from Rome had been achieved, Charles returned with the world to France, together with his sons and the army: he sent Louis to Aquitaine to rule the country, giving him Arnold as guardians, and appropriately appointed other ministers necessary for the upbringing of children. Another new king, four-year-old son Pipinn, Karl gives control of the country of Lambards to Italy. "... over all of Italy, subject to his authority, he appointed his son Pepin as king." But conquering Italy was not so easy. Arachis, Duke of Benevent, son-in-law of the deposed Desiderius, declared his rights to the kingdom. Informed about everything by the pope, Charles at the beginning of 787. was already in Rome, where he decided to subjugate the possessions of Arachiz. The army entered the duchy. Arachis, wanting to avoid ruin, formally swore allegiance to the king of the Franks, but secretly hoping later at a convenient moment to get out of obedience. “But the duke of this people, Arachiz, prevented the war: sending his sons Rumold and Grimold to meet the king with great gifts and asking them to take both of them hostages, he promised, together with all the people, to fulfill any orders ...”. The unexpected death of his son Romuld, and then Arachiz himself, put an end to these plans. But now Adelgiz, with the support of Byzantium, began attacks on the papal possessions. The victorious war between Charles and Byzantium put an end to these claims. "The end of the Lombard war was that Italy was subjugated, King Dysederius and his son Adelgiz were expelled from Italy, and the lands taken from the Lombard kings were returned to Hadrian, the ruler of the Roman church." It was a triumph for Charles. They also conquered Istria. However, of all the donated territories in 774. the pope received practically nothing but a tiny region of Sabina, an insignificant part of Tuscia (Tuscany). With all this, Charles fully supported the Roman throne, stood guard over the faith and showed constant signs of attention to its head, who approved all the plans and actions of his new ruler.

The defeat of Desiderius forced his ally and son-in-law Tassion to rely only on his own forces, which were not so great as to enter into open confrontation with Charles. “At the instigation of his wife, the daughter of King Desiderius, who, with the help of her husband, wanted to avenge her father’s exile by entering into an alliance with the Huns ... to disobey ... The indignant king, not wanting to endure such impudence, gathered an army, sent him to Bavaria ... Karl decided ... to find out through his ambassadors about the Duke's intentions. But he, not considering further resistance useful for his people, humbly expressed humility ... ". Therefore, Tassilon renews the oath given once to King Pepin, but enters into an agreement with the enemies of Charles in southern Italy and secretly agrees on joint actions with the wild nomads - the Avars against the Franks. Carl finds out about it. In 787, he demands an immediate personal appearance from the Bavarian duke. Thassilon dodges. Then the king surrounds Bavaria with troops from all sides. Tassilon, realizing the hopelessness of the situation, comes to Karl and once again takes an oath of allegiance, but this can no longer save the duke. In 788, he was summoned to the General Diet, where the Franks unanimously sentenced the rebel to death, Charles commuted the sentence, replacing death with the tonsure of Tassilon and his family. "Thassilon, summoned to the king, was retained by him, and the province of the duke was handed over to the earls to rule."

Now the king is entirely occupied with the subjugation of the Saxons and strives to victoriously end the war with them - the longest and most cruel of all the wars of Charles. "After the end of Italian affairs, the Saxon war resumed again, as if interrupted (772 - 804)."

The tribes of the Saxons inhabited the vast territory between the Rhine in its lower reaches and the Elbe. The Saxons did not know state power, although they had separate social groups. The top of the society was made up of edelings, or noble - tribal nobility; then came the bulk of the free population - freelings: below all were dependent producers or slaves. Ethnically, the Saxons were also heterogeneous. In the west, up to the mouth of the Weser, lived the Westphalians, the closest neighbors of the Franks; in the center of the country lived tribes that had the common name of the Angrarians, to the east of them, to the Elbe, the lands of the Ostfals stretched, the northernmost part of Saxony was occupied by the Nordalbings. “And so, a war began with them, which lasted 33 years with the strongest bitterness on both sides, but still to the greater harm of the Saxons than the Franks.” Since 772 before 804 with short respite, an exhausting and stubborn war dragged on. “It was the longest and cruelest and cost the Frankish people the greatest losses ... for the Saxons ... did not consider it dishonorable to violate and defile both divine and human laws. Do not count how many times they, defeated, ... submitted to the king, ... promised not to worship demons anymore and accept the Christian faith. But they broke their word; ... ".

Frankish detachments ravaged the settlements and temples of the Saxons, took numerous hostages and left strong garrisons in hastily built fortresses. But when the main Frankish troops left Saxony, the Saxons again and again got out of obedience. All the successes of the conquerors were reduced to nothing. It was necessary to start all over again. On the first campaign of Charles in 772. in Saxony, the Franks destroyed the fortress of Eresburg, overthrew the pagan shrine of Irminsul and took hostages. "772. King Charles was with the troops in Saxony and destroyed their shrine, which was called Irminsul. Campaign 775g. differed from the previous one only in that before leaving enemy territory, the king left strong garrisons in Eresburg and Sigiburg. "775. There was King Charles with troops in Saxony, devastated it, bringing it great destruction, and conquered the fortresses called Eresburg and Sigiburg, and put a garrison there.

However, the Saxons continue to attack the border areas of the Franks. “There were other reasons that contributed to the daily violation of the peace. Our frontiers (of the Franks) and theirs (of the Saxons), on level ground, were almost contiguous, with the exception of a few points where the Frankish fields were clearly separated from those of the Saxons, either by extensive forests, or intermediate ranges of mountains; on the adjacent borders, murders, robberies and fires alternated alternately.

The rebelliousness of the Saxons forced Charles to change tactics. He seeks to create a fortified line - a border "mark" that protects against enemy raids in the future. "... almost continuously there was a struggle with the Saxons, Karl, placed garrisons in convenient places along the border with them ...". In 776. he again fortifies Eresburg and Sigiburg, adding to them the newly built Karlsberg. The king leaves priests in the border zone, who are to convert the pagan Saxons to the faith of Christ. "776. King Charles...conquered most of Saxony; and the Saxons converted to the faith of Christ, and countless multitudes of them were baptized.”

However, the leader of the Westphalian nobility Widukind unites around him for further resistance to the conquerors of the Saxons - the Westphals. Karl's response was to continue the war until complete victory over the recalcitrant. On a campaign in 780. Karl's troops advanced to the Elbe - the border between the Saxons and Slavs. At the same time, the king led numerous priests, wanting to Christianize all of Saxony. His main assistant in this was the Anglo-Saxon, Doctor of Theology Villegarde. "780. The Lord King Charles again went with an army to Saxony and came to the great river Elbe, and all the Saxons submitted to him, and he took various hostages, both free and Lithuanian, and he divided this country between bishops, priests and abbots, in order to they baptized and preached here; and also a huge multitude of pagan Wends and Frisians came to believe.” In 782 Charles divided Saxony, which had not yet been conquered, into administrative districts, at the head of which he put counts, including from the local nobility. Thus, by Christianization and bringing under the Frankish administrative system, Charles included Saxony in his possessions. "782. And King Charles called a great assembly of his army in Saxony in Lippspiering and installed counts over it from among the noblest Saxons.

Secretly arrived in 782. from a refuge in Denmark, Widukind again gathered like-minded people. An uprising broke out. The Saxons, who accepted the new faith, were beaten, the temples were destroyed. The dignitaries of Karl, sent to quell the uprising, approached the Weser. At Mount Zuntal, the rebels gave them a battle that turned into a massacre. Karl had never experienced such a defeat before. “And when he found out that they (the Saxons) again fell away from the faith and gathered, led by Widukind, for a rebellion, he returned to Saxony ...”. His revenge was terrible. In 783 he immediately gathered an army, immediately appeared at the lower reaches of the Weser, summoned the Saxon elders, who were supposed to betray the perpetrators of the "mutiny". Widukind managed to escape back to Denmark. The trembling elders named 4,500 of their countrymen, who, on the orders of Charles, were brought to Verdun and beheaded. "... and a war began with the rebels, ... and the Franks fought with the Saxons and by the grace of Christ they won, and many thousands were killed by the Saxons, even more than before." “This bloody action was purely political in nature. She showed the population what awaits them in case of further disobedience.”

“The next three years (783 - 785) Charles gave almost entirely to Saxony. He beat the Saxons in open battles and punitive raids, took hundreds of hostages, whom he led out of the country, destroyed the villages and farms of the recalcitrant. Winter 784-785. he spent in the Weser, and in the spring he moved to Ehresburg. From Ehresburg, Karl several times threw flying squads through all of Saxony, clearing the roads, tearing down enemy fortifications, and exterminating those who resisted. He began negotiations with Widukind, which successfully ended with the arrival of Widukind to the king in Attiny and his baptism, and Charles himself was the godfather. “Having submitted to him, the Saxons again accepted Christianity, which they had previously rejected. After peace was established and the rebellions stopped, the king returned home. Widukind, the initiator of all evils and the inspirer of intrigues, came with his followers to the palace of Attiny and was baptized there, and Mr. Karl was his godfather and honored him with magnificent gifts.

In 793 an uprising broke out again, the Saxons tried to conduct joint operations with all the enemies of the Franks - Frisians, Avars, Slavs. “... the Saxons, turning away from Christianity, having deceived God and the lord of the king, who showed them many favors, united with the pagan peoples surrounding them. Having sent their ambassadors to the Avars, they tried to rebel - first of all against God, and then against the king and Christians; all the churches that were within their borders, they devastated, destroyed and burned, and driving out the bishops and priests who were placed over them, they seized some, killed others and returned completely to the worship of idols.

The rebels destroyed temples, killed priests. The Frankish garrisons were massacred. In the autumn of the same year, Charles arrived in Saxony with an army. During 794 - 799. he waged a merciless war, accompanied by mass captures of hostages and prisoners, with their subsequent resettlement as serfs in the internal regions of the state. “Not allowing any of their tricks to go unpunished. Charles, leading personally or sending an army under the command of his counts, avenged treason and imposed a fitting punishment, until, finally, crushing and subjugating all those who resisted, he moved ten thousand people ... along with their wives and children to different regions Gaul of Germany (804)". Up to a third of the country's inhabitants were resettled. In the fight against the Saxons, Karl actively used the help of the old enemies of the Saxons - the Slavs - encouraged. “... our Slavs, who are called encouraged, led by the messengers of the lord king, rose against those Saxons who live on the northern bank of the Elbe, devastated their possessions and burned them ... and despite the fact that they were encouraged, they were pagans, they were helped by the faith of Christians and the lord king and they defeated the Saxons ... ".

The last campaign in the Saxon war was the military campaign of 796-799, which Charles carried out together with his sons. "796. That year, King Charles was in Saxony with his two sons, namely Charles and Louis, he went around the Saxon lands ... ". “... King Charles captured many Saxons with their wives and children, settling them in various regions of his state, and divided their land among his faithful, namely between bishops, priests, counts and other vassals of his, and he built an amazing church there in Padeborn magnitude, and ordered it to be illuminated, and after that he returned in peace to the Aachen Palace, and stayed there. The king himself did not show much activity in this campaign. He sent Charles the Young to complete the battle in Nordalbingia and then returned to France as a winner.

In second place in terms of duration and difficulty, you can put the war of Charles with the Avars. The Franks encountered them immediately after the subjugation of Bavaria. The Avars were closely associated with the enemies of the Franks, the Lombards, Saxons, and Bavarians. The war went on with varying success, and the French king had to mobilize all his forces and put forward the best generals to the front ranks in order to successfully resist the nomads. “The king himself led, however, only one expedition, ... he entrusted the leadership of the rest to his son Pepin, the rulers of the regions, as well as counts and special commissioners.”

In 795 doubling their army through an alliance with the southern Slavs, the Franks basically defeated the enemy, capturing rich booty. "It is impossible to point to another war declared by the Franks, during which they could acquire so much and enrich themselves." Charles instructed his young son Pepin, the nominal king of Italy, to finish what he had begun, for whom, of course, the most experienced military leaders fought. "Thanks to the active orders of these people, the end of the war was put in the eighth year." The Avars, realizing the hopelessness of resistance, having killed their ruler Kagagan and his main advisers, decided to submit to Pepin, but the young king did not accept them, but began to destroy and ruin everything in his path, putting the Avars to flight. “How many battles were given, how much blood was shed can be judged by the fact that not a single person was left alive in Pannonia, and the place where the royal dwelling of the Kagan was was devastated to the point that there were no traces of human life left. All the nobility of the Huns perished in this war, and all their glory disappeared.

Karl calculated everything exactly: his son was proclaimed a great strategist and savior of the fatherland. A whole legion of bishops and priests was sent to follow the army, to Christianize the defeated.

The capture of Italy, Bavaria, Saxony, and finally Avaria brought the Franks closer to the new neighbors of the Slavs. The Slavs, like their neighbors the Saxons, lived in a communal - tribal system at the stage of its decomposition. They distinguished tribal nobility, princes appeared who stood at the head of tribal unions. Charles' relations with the Slavic tribes developed differently. In the war with the Saxons, he often relied on the support of the Slavs - the Abodrites, so that the Franks called them "their Slavs." Karl was so pleased with them that he approved the Slavic prince Drazhko as the Grand Duke and handed over Nordalbingia to the Abodrites.

Karl's relations with another Slavic tribal union, the Wilts, who were famous for their ferocity and intolerance, developed differently. The Vilians were constantly at enmity with the Abodrites. "... a war began with the Slavs, who, in our opinion, are imposed on the Wilts, and in their own language - Velatabs." In 789 Charles undertook a grandiose campaign in the country of the Vilians. “The reason for the war was that the Vilians constantly disturbed the raids of the Abodrites, the old allies of the Franks, and could not be held back by orders alone.” Franks, Saxons, Frisians, Lusatian Serbs participated in the campaign. The strongest blow was dealt to the Lutiches. Despite stubborn resistance, the Wilts were defeated, the Capital surrendered. Their prince Dragovit submitted and gave hostages. Then Karl appointed Dragovit the Grand Duke of the Wilts. “With just one campaign, in which Charles led, he tamed them so much that in the future they did not consider it possible to evade obedience anymore.”

Relations with the Lusatian Serbs were not so dramatic. Karl, then carried out military incursions into their territories, then took them as allies against the Wilts.

The conclusion suggests itself that in the 70-90s. VIII century Charles did not make any serious attempt to establish himself in the Slavic lands.

Waging endless wars in the east, Karl made attempts to expand his possessions in the west. "Charles and the Britons, who live in the west ... and did not want to obey him, conquered: the army sent by the king forced the Britons to give hostages and do everything that was ordered." His troops repeatedly invaded Brittany and imposed tribute on the Celtic tribes of the Britons. In the 70s. there was created a fortified zone of the brand with the cities of Rennes, Tours, Angers.

In 799 Charles organized a large expedition to Brittany, but he could not conquer it to the end. She retained her religious customs and peculiarities.

In 778 at the head of a large military force, Charles invaded Spain, but was ambushed by the conquerors in the Ronselval Gorge by the freedom-loving tribe of the Basques - Waxons and was defeated. “When the army was moving in extended formation, as the mountain gorges forced it to be, the Basques, setting up an ambush on the tops of the rocks, ... attacked the detachment from above ... killed everyone to one, after which, having plundered the convoy, under the cover of the coming night, they quickly dispersed in different directions. " Then Karl began to strengthen the areas of Aquitaine and Vasconia closest to the Pyrenees. Since 779 settled vassals there, and in 781. singled out Aquitaine as a separate kingdom and gave it to his youngest son Louis, who, at the behest of his father, carried out a number of campaigns for the Pyrenees. The Spanish brand was founded - a fortified area with the cities of Gerona, Urgell, Vika. In 801 Barcelona was conquered, which became the center of the brand, in 806. Pamplona, ​​and by the end of the reign of Charles, his possessions extended to the Ebro River.

The result of numerous wars was the territorial expansion of the Frankish state almost twice during the reign of Charles. “With these wars, the kingdom of the Franks, received from his father Pepin, already great and strong, Charles expanded and almost doubled.” At the same time, his influence extended far beyond the borders of the state. "Charles increased the glory of his reign by acquiring the friendship of certain kings and peoples." In the Muslim East, Caliph Harun ar-Rashid sought an alliance with him. “Aaron (Harun al Rashid, Caliph of Baghdat), the king of the Persians, who owned the whole east ... was so friendly to Charles that he preferred his love to the affection of all kings and princes on the globe and considered him alone worthy of respect and gifts.”

The name Charles was pronounced respectfully in Austria and Scotland. “He entered into such close relations with Gadefons, the king of Gasil and Asturias (Austrian king), that the latter, sending a letter or ambassadors to Charles, ordered to call himself in these cases only as devoted to him. Even the kings of cattle (i.e. Scottish) he knew how to subjugate his generosity to his will so that they called him nothing more than a master, but spoke of themselves as subjects and slaves. The generosity of the king of the Franks was used by the Christians of Alexandria and Carthage.

In 800 Pope Leo III proclaimed Charles emperor, "... King Charles ... obeying God, and also at the request of the priests and the entire Christian people on the same Christmas day (800) of our Lord Jesus Christ, took the title of emperor along with the consecration from the master of Pope Leo." This is how a global event happened. There was a new French Empire and its Emperor Charlemagne.

The incident caused a sharply negative reaction from the imperial authorities of Byzantium. "...the title of emperor adopted by Charles aroused in them a strong suspicion, as if Charles thereby revealed plans to take away the empire from them." Although "Greeks and Romans have always looked incredulously at the power of the Franks ... he (Charles) entered into a close alliance with them so that there would be no reason for a break between both sides." Byzantium 10 years later recognized the imperial title of Charlemagne.

"Such was, as you can see, the activities of Charles, aimed at expanding, protecting and decorating the state."

2 Government system

Before the conquest of Gaul, the Franks had not yet developed an organization of state administration. The supreme power belonged to military leaders, public and judicial cases were decided at public meetings with the participation of all male soldiers. This primitive device turned out to be unsuitable for organizing domination over the conquered territories and their population. During the reign of Charlemagne, the Frankish state significantly strengthened and expanded, turning into an empire. "... Charles united into one empire the peoples who lived from the Ebro River to the Elbe and from the Apennines to the German (North) Sea, that is, most of the lands that were once part of the Western Roman Empire."

It was necessary to establish a system for the administration of these vast territories and, by means of persuasion and practical measures, to induce the Saxons, Gascons, Italians and Franks to accept the power of the king, to bring to the attention of all peoples living in the kingdom the fundamental principles of royal government, as well as the duties that were imposed in connection with this. to the subjects of the king.

Charlemagne continued and developed the traditions laid down by his father Pepin, “It is desirable for us that the decrees approved by our father in good memory at meetings and synods act as before,” followed the paths outlined by him. "... he managed to make the most of the political results achieved by his predecessors, and to complete the work they started." However, the traditions of the transfer of royal power are changing, acquiring a new meaning. The anointing means that the king is the chosen one of the Lord, i.e. the procedure for choosing the king by the magnates and the clergy ceases to exist. Charlemagne and his family, who were honored with divine election, were now supposed to rule the Frankish empire by the will of the Lord. “Continuously reading the City of God, Blessed. Augustine, ... Karl dreamed of a state structure where there would be two authorities - secular and spiritual - but with the indispensable dominance of secular power.

The fulfillment by the king of his duties ceases to be his personal affair; it now concerned the entire Christian people of the Franks as a whole. “This people was also a Christian people, namely a Christian community, a church where there is a place for everyone, clerics and laity, rich and poor. In the same sermons, praises (Laudes) are offered to the king, and his offspring, and to the whole people of the Franks.

If the king is chosen by God, then God did it for the good and salvation of the people, all the people he had chosen. "... he stands between God and the people." “Happy is the people inspired and led by a true leader and preacher, whose right hand raises the victorious sword, and whose lips make the trumpet of the Catholic faith sound.” The aristocracy, the most powerful political force in the Frankish world, was - at least for a while - removed from influence on the election of the king.

The king, as the anointed of God, had certain obligations in relation to the Christian people, namely, to maintain peace and universal harmony between those people who are brothers in faith. “And may peace, harmony and unity reign among the entire Christian people, and may the bishops, abbots, counts, judges, great and small of this world, be in peace, for the observance of peace is the first joy that we can deliver to the Lord.”

The king was obliged to protect every person belonging to his people and for this he should issue correct laws, and his administration should inform every subject about them. “The Most Serene and Most Christian Sovereign, Emperor Charles ... gave all those named below the opportunity to live according to a just law. If there is something else in the law besides what is right and just, he orders it to be diligently investigated and reported to him; he himself later, according to God's will, will wish to correct this.

For himself, Charles believed that, “We must do the will of God, protect and protect pious, righteous, respectable Christians from any attacks and raids from the outside by the armies of pagans and infidels, sowing death and destruction, and also strengthen and protect the common faith from within , conscientiousness and piety".

The king is obliged to help those who are marked by God: the poor, orphans, widows, pilgrims, the suffering. “And it seems to us fair and honorable that guests, wanderers and the poor should have refuge in various places, established by the rules and canons; because the Lord will also say on the great day of recompense: "I was a stranger, and you received me." “No one dares to bring to the state of a slave ... people who are forced to ask the king for peace and protection, because they are in need and poverty ...”.

Clerics and their well-being become the subject of special concern for the king. “He sacredly and devotedly revered the Christian religion, ... zealously and often attended the church ... provided it with such an abundance of sacred vessels made of gold and silver and the clothes of clergymen ... even the gatekeepers of the lowest church rank did not need to serve in their own clothes.”

So Charles becomes the ruler (rector) of the people and the protector (defensor) of the church. “So, the most illustrious and most Christian sovereign, Emperor Karl ... presented to all subsequent people to live according to the right law. And let no one dare, ... and let no one oppress either the churches of God, or the poor, or widows, or orphans, and no Christians at all; but let them all live together, according to God’s prescription, justly and justly, and let everyone and everyone be unanimous in their decision or utterance; ... let the canons observe a completely canonical way of life, ... let the monastics oversee their lives, under careful supervision, and use secular persons and laity correctly, without crafty deceit, by their own laws, may they all live in perfect mutual goodwill and peace.

The royal estate and court become an example for everyone. Aachen was supposed to be an earthly image of heavenly Jerusalem, a plan was developed to create a unified Christian empire of the "City of God" on earth. By bliss Augustine "City of God" - "... this is an invisible, spiritual kingdom. Coexisting and intertwining with earthly kingdoms, it leads to eternal life... and earthly rulers, being true Christians, must vigilantly monitor the fulfillment of divine plans... By their actions they are called upon to contribute to the formation of an ideal order, the main features of which are peace, unity and truth, guarded by the Church of Christ." Karl became firmly convinced that it was he who was called by God to bring this to life, because he never doubted that he received power from God, the imperial title "God's grace." “Karl, by the grace of God, the king of the Franks and Lombards, the patrician of the Romans, Baugulf abbot and all the brethren - our faithful prayer books entrusted to your care - in the name of Almighty God, sends friendly greetings.”

Karl subordinated all his legislative activity to the desire to plant “holy truth”, unity and peace in any way. "And let everyone live among themselves in mercy, peace and harmony."

"According to the state system of the Frankish Empire, all power was in the hands of the king, the nobility and the clergy."

Under the king, there was a permanent council, which consisted mainly of clerics who worked in the royal office, and a number of magnates. The Council dealt with a variety of issues: the management of royal property, the fiscus, the issuance of edicts, the collection of information, the preparation of instructions intended for both internal and external use. Karl “Inspired by the ideal of peace, order and balance, he pursued a policy that in modern historiography has been called “dirigisme”. Orders came from him for all occasions. His dignitaries and ministerials were in charge of separate threads of government, but all the threads converged in the hands of the emperor. The court remained the center of government of the country"

The chancellor was appointed by the monarch from among the clergy, as well as the head of the office and the army of notaries who compiled imperial letters, diplomas, immunity letters. The post of mayor was abolished. The new person was the archcapellan - the bishop or abbot, who was in charge of general church affairs. Positions - seneschal, cubiculari, marshals remained the same. “Counselors, both spiritual and secular, were chosen such that, first of all, each in accordance with his rank and position, would fear God, then they would be distinguished by such fidelity that, with the exception of eternal life, they preferred nothing to the king and kingdom, nor enemies neither relatives, nor those who bring gifts, nor flattering, nor embittering, (would be) wise, not sophistically, not slyness or the wisdom of that age that is hostile to God, but would have that wisdom or knowledge with which they could with real and with righteous wisdom, not only to completely refute, but also to decisively smash those who rely on the aforementioned human tricks.

In the palace one could always meet intellectuals who create spiritual and artistic values, as well as learned theologians. "... the most pious Charles the Emperor willingly accepts wise husbands ...".

"Diligently engaged in various sciences, he highly appreciated the scientists, showing them great respect." For many, the courtyard was a temporary seat: bishops were replaced at the post of archcapelan; The seneschal, who in normal times was in charge of the house and the kitchen, could be put at the head of the army. Of course, at the court there was also a constant, rather numerous circle of people from noble families, administrators and scientists who rallied around the king. However, they made up only part of Karl's entourage: a significant number of very different people were grouped around him, from servants to hostages - children of noble families of the conquered territories. “He loved strangers ... So that their large number justly seemed burdensome ... However, he himself, thanks to the greatness of his soul, was least of all burdened by this kind of burden, since even significant inconveniences were paid off by acquiring fame for his generosity and good name.”

There was also an inner circle (familia), a very heterogeneous community, whose members were connected with the king by ties of both distant and near kinship. These people were not equal either in position or in length of stay in the palace. Everyone could receive a task, for which it was necessary to leave the palace, someone, on the contrary, was appointed as a palace adviser.

In the first half of his reign, which became a period of incessant wars, Charlemagne was forced to deal with state affairs, being on a constant journey, moving from one Austrasian residence to another. Then the whole yard set off on a journey.

The palace (palatium) was called several residences at once: Geristal, Cologne, Thionville; the king chose one of them, in accordance with political necessity, the availability of free funds and time. During travels to Rome and during military campaigns in which Charles himself participated, the palace residences moved with him to the border areas.

Twice a year, namely in spring and autumn, many distinguished guests came to the palace from remote provinces, accompanied by devoted people. “And let everyone come to the meeting, the first time in the approach of summer, and the second time in the fall.”

At the same time, there were also foreign ambassadors. At this General Assembly, issues of waging and continuing the war were decided, sentences were passed on those guilty of unrest, perjury, betrayal, affairs of the kingdom were discussed, gifts were accepted from ambassadors, tribute from tributaries. “And let all the earls faithful to us, having shown zeal, begin the preparations necessary for the earls to come to us at the meeting with their people, wagons and gifts.”

If the residence turned out to be small for those who arrived from far away, then tents were pitched in the field, placing them in a strictly defined order: depending on the family ties of the participants, as well as the areas from which they arrived. Such an assembly most of all resembled a military camp, and meetings often took place on the eve of military campaigns; in these cases, they assumed the function of organizers of military training.

It was during the General Assemblies that the king ruled the state together with the entire people of the Franks, represented by the largest magnates.

“In those days, it was customary to convene a meeting twice a year ... At the first meeting, the affairs of the entire kingdom for the coming year were decided ... Only the most eminent people gathered at the second meeting ... The emperor brought to the attention of the participants of one or another meeting ... his decisions regarding the issuance of laws or orders, .. Secluded from other people, magnates, clerics and laity had the right to sit together or separately ... The king asked everyone if anything remarkable or worthy of entering into the annals had happened in that part of the kingdom from where he arrived. For each of the magnates was not only allowed, but even initially ordered, before appearing at the Sejm, to inquire in detail about all the affairs of the kingdom, both internal and external ... If in any corner of the kingdom the people were in agitation, the king was interested in the reasons for this unrest, and asked if this agitation was expressed only in murmuring, or if some disturbances were made, and whether the General Assembly should take care of pacifying these disturbances, and asked many more similar questions ... ".

The king asked questions and listened to answers, agreed or made his proposals. As a result of these dialogues, the decision of the sovereign was born, and it was it that was the last and final. “None of the outsiders was allowed until each individually completed case was reported to the sovereign, at his sacred discretion, and no matter what decision he chose, according to the wisdom given to him from God, everyone followed ...”.

Thus, the General Assembly was a kind of extended central government; being the heir to the former Merovingian assemblies, it, however, acted much more effectively, since its activities were based on theocratic principles. It ensured the universal approval of royal decisions, because every free person in the kingdom theoretically had the right to take part in it.

The royal court, which was the central governing body, did not close in on itself. He ruled, educated cadres for the administration, pointed out to the sons of the rebellious nobility which path they should choose, gave advice to local authorities and at the same time supervised them. “But from other officials (ministtrialibus), he received orders to stay in the palace who showed himself to be such that, first studying, and then conferring, he could honorably replace them (any palace official) in this or that matter, or now , or in the future, delving into all cases being dealt with in the most attentive way, keeping secrets, studying things that have not been sorted out (cases) and fulfilling the prescriptions and decrees ... ". Every free man had the right to be accepted at court.

The empire created by Charlemagne demanded a complete reorganization of the administrative apparatus of his predecessors. First of all, Karl, seeks to create a strong centralized state, controlled by an extensive apparatus of officials. The center of the administrative apparatus was located in his residence in the city of Aachen (on the territory of modern Germany). Here lived and served the largest officials of the empire of Charlemagne: the chamber count, the supreme judge (with the prerogative of replacing the emperor in his absence), “The concerns of the palace count, among other almost innumerable (cases), were aimed mainly at ensuring that it was fair and it is reasonable to resolve all legal disputes that, having arisen in other places, were brought to the palace in search of a just solution, ”the archchancellor (head of the imperial chancellery), cameraman (imperial treasurer)“ Apokrisiary, that is, the chaplain or guardian of the palace and the camerle (in the palace), and therefore, with the greatest care, such or those chosen were so instructed that they could worthily stay there, ”constable (horseman, head of the cavalry), etc. Naturally, these officials could not manage the entire empire without leaving the royal palace. Therefore, throughout the empire, from the Pyrenees to the Balkans and from the Baltic to Italy, local officials sat in the field, constituting a certain feudal hierarchy, similar to the one that was framed in the center. The count was at the head of a large administrative district, he had vicar assistants (vice counts); the lowest official in the imperial table of ranks was a centurion - the head of a small district, hundreds. Bishops, who were personally appointed by the emperor, played an important role in the localities.

Under Karl, an apparatus was formed to control the actions of local officials. Auditors, or royal envoys, were sent from the center of the empire, “... who four times a year (two, usually one count and one bishop) traveled around the areas subject to their supervision; they had to listen to the complaints of the offended, correct abuses and report everything to the emperor. "Mr. Emperor Charles sent (messengers) throughout the kingdom and through them ordered everyone to live according to the law and justice." The auditors checked how the decrees of the center were carried out, and also informed local officials about the changes taking place in the system of government of the empire. “We, the sovereign’s envoys, have come to you with this letter in order to command you on behalf of the emperor and ask you, on our behalf, to zealously and properly fulfill all the duties that have accustomed your high rank, both in the part that concerns the service of the sovereign, and and in that which relates to the service for the good and salvation of the entire Christian people. For our sovereign commanded us, and with us and all the other envoys, to come to him in mid-April with an authentic report on what was done in his state from what he deigned to command in recent years and about which he reported through his envoys and what hasn't been done. And this is done so that he can reward the zealous and zealous as he pleases, and reproach and shame those who did not fulfill his commandments.

“... The position of special “envoys” was established: missi dominisi, who oversaw legal proceedings and military affairs, and missi fiscalini oversaw administration in general.” These envoys everywhere carried out the will of the sovereign, the idea of ​​state unity. “The most illustrious and most Christian sovereign, Emperor Charles, chose from his noble associates the most reasonable and wise, archbishops and other bishops and God-fearing laity, and directed them throughout the kingdom and through them (given) everyone the opportunity to live according to a just law.”

“The most important means of unity was the privileged position that fell to the lot of the Frankish nationality: from it (albeit not exclusively) the highest dignitaries, counts, officials - envoys were elected mainly ... Clerics took a considerable part in the management, when replacing various spiritual positions, there was no preference for a certain nationality was not given."

Charles made changes to the judicial functions of the counts. The count was supposed to lead the court together with the court assessors - "scabins", who actually became judges. The Count presided over and approved their decisions. "For the analysis of any case, they were chosen ... by the count, in whose jurisdiction should be ... the trial, the best people ...".

There was also a royal court, which was presided over by Charles himself. “... all powerful people who are conducting a lawsuit with each other and who did not want to end his world order were ordered to appear before our face and that their case should not be dealt with in any other place and that this would not delay the administration of justice for the poor and less powerful." [3. C. 177]

The Catholic Church and the uniform education it provided were one of the most important binding principles in the empire and constituted one of the most important government funds of Charles. “To the most pious sovereign… in accordance with your will and your convictions… Working a lot on many things in order to educate many for the benefit of God’s holy church and to adorn your imperial power. I always urged, sovereign king, young men .., with all my might to study the beginning of such wisdom and to assimilate them with daily labors ... I do not stop sowing (knowledge) in France. And if God wills, I would like (these) crops to sprout ... (on the territory of the entire empire). “And let schools be set up to teach boys to read. Psalms, sheet music, manuals for singing and counting, grammars and liturgical books in monasteries and bishoprics must be corrected (according to a single model).”

The territory of the empire of Charles was great. The emperor was attentive to the problems of the peoples inhabiting his state. He paid special attention to the collection and putting in order of numerous "barbaric truths". Along with the "God's judgment" and the judicial duel, a procedure was introduced to establish the truth by taking an oath. “If a free man cannot pay the debt… let him swear, and with him twelve more witnesses. If the plaintiff does not want to accept the oaths of twelve witnesses, let him challenge the defendant to a duel, and let them fight with a shield and a stick, and also having a cross with them. The old Roman laws were left in force, but each large region received its own code. The Jews were judged according to their own laws. Karl demanded that every inhabitant of the state, no matter what nationality he was, knew his laws. “If something came up about which the laws of the world did not give instructions in their ordinances, or in tribal customs a more cruel thing was decreed than Christian virtue and the commandments of God would agree, then this was transferred to the discretion of the king, so that he, together with those who would know both the one and the other law, but would be more afraid of God than the ordinances of human laws, so decided that, where it was possible to observe both one and the other, both would be observed, if the secular law should not be deservedly applied, (then ) to keep God's justice."

So Karl called the law bestowed by God as the main law. It is universal and was a kind of result of Karl's activities in regulating legislation. "Let all live in justice, for thus commanded the Lord."

The lands conquered by the Franks in ancient times, as well as annexed as a result of recent military campaigns, were united and equipped according to a single model. “After accepting the imperial title, Charles, seeing great shortcomings in the legislation of his people, ... decided to fill in the missing, reconcile the contradictory and correct the unjust and outdated.” However, it was a stretch to talk about the unification of the administrative apparatus: in each area, the administration had to adapt to deeply rooted local customs and traditions, taking into account their distinctive features. Therefore, in my opinion, there are three models of local management organization.

Small kingdoms (regna).

They were vast lands ruled by the sons of the king. The former institutions and local governments were preserved here, however, all of them were subordinate to the King of the Franks - Charlemagne, who has been unchanged since May 801. “... called himself in official documents “his august lordship Charles, crowned by God, the great and peace-loving emperor, ruling the Roman Empire, and by the grace of God, the king of the Franks and Lombards.” There were only two such kingdoms, and they were created, in fact, simultaneously: in 781. the kingdom of Italy was formed, placed at the disposal of Pepin, and the kingdom of Aquitaine, destined for Louis. Small kingdoms had a special status as separate territories, however, all decrees necessarily emphasized the dependence of the kings of Italy and Aquitaine on the king of the Franks and the Lombards. In 806 Charlemagne planned to make a preliminary division of the territory of the Frankish state between his three sons, but left his personal power in the empire supreme. In the preface to "Section 806" Karl expresses a desire to have his sons "... during our lifetime as co-rulers, and after our death to leave the heirs of our God-protected empire or kingdom ...". The peculiarity of the management of these kingdoms was the creation of a special system of relationships between the new royal power in them and the power of King Charles. The king of the kingdom, for example, Louis (Aquitaine) legislated, administered justice, led the army on campaigns; Charlemagne also performed the same functions in the region - on the grounds that he holds the title of King of the Franks. Thus, for the first time, the concept of a “small kingdom” arose.

In Italy, as in Aquitaine, and in the possessions of the Lombard dukes, the main person who exercised local government was the count (comes). The Lombards have a gastald. In general, the administrative structure of the small kingdoms did not differ too much from the system adopted throughout the rest of the territory belonging to the Franks. However, due to their remoteness from the central authority of the sovereign and certain inconsistencies that occurred due to the lack of clarity in delimiting the functions of the two levels of royal power, Charles regularly sent his envoys (missi) to the small kingdoms, who played the role of temporary observers and controllers. About 789. he issued two capitularies specifically addressed to envoys in Aquitaine and Italy. “And our sons must be obedient to us, just as our people, beloved by God, are obliged to obey us just as it is fitting for sons to obey their father, as well as their king and emperor.”

Later, Charles divided the entire territory of the kingdom of the Franks into districts (missatica), each of which was also subject to the control of his envoys.

Marks (marca).

The stamps were an intermediate structure between the power of the king and the power of the count. Located on the periphery of the Frankish lands, they served as border guard posts, observation outposts, especially when the neighbors were quite formidable opponents. Spanish, British, Danish, Sorbian, Avar, Friulian, stamps sometimes consisted of several counties ruled by counts, among which one had the title of governor of the borders - margrave. The one who was entrusted with the governorship was called prefect, count or marquis, and sometimes even duke, as in Friul. The prefect is the main ruler of the brand; its administrative structure was subordinated - primarily to tasks related to the conduct of the war. The ruler possessed great fullness of personal power, which, in fact, turned him into the vice-king of the region he ruled. The main difference between the brand and the small kingdoms is that it is never ruled by royal sons. It should also be noted that this position was temporary.

Counties (comes).

Separate districts of the kingdom (padus) called counties were ruled by counts (their position was beneficial), which was the only link between the king and the free people living in the kingdom. The count, brought up at court and chosen for his leadership abilities by the king himself, was sent to the district, the center of which was most often the city where the bishop's chair (civitas) is located. The county usually bore the name of this city, and the earl shared power in it with the bishop. “We send you an order and advice to obey the instructions of your bishop in everything that has to do with his service. You should use all your strength and zeal so that the laws of the emperor, which were brought to you orally and in writing, are observed exactly, and you are responsible for this.

The count was appointed to the district for a certain period, but at any time he could be transferred to another district or, having entrusted the command of a military unit, sent on a campaign far beyond the territory subject to him.

Natives of the aristocracy, having taken office, became the conductors of the unitary policy of the Carolingians. They were in charge of the judiciary, so they were sometimes called judges (judex); the duty of the counts was to gather an army, publicly take an oath of allegiance to the king, oversee the maintenance of fortifications, roads, mints, and collect taxes. As a reward for his labors, the count took away part of the taxes and court fines. “The count should not collect a penalty for any reason either for the guard service, or for the messenger service, or for the wait, or for anything else, if our messenger did not first collect a penalty in our favor and did not give the count, according to our command, to his third parts. The very same fine is not exacted either by lands or serfs, but by gold, silver, fabrics, weapons, livestock, or such items that can be useful. Also, the earl used the income from fiskovyh lands, he had the right to this while he held this position; he also received income from various receipts from monasteries and castles; all the income of the count was called remuneration (honores). In his county, he was the chief commissioner of the king. He had assistant viscounts, vicars and centurions. Neither the origin of these posts nor their powers are completely clear to historians; they are probably closely related to local management traditions; at least that was the case at the beginning of the reign of Charlemagne. Most likely, the duty of the count was to select assistants for himself from the local nobility; it was through them that he exercised control over the territories subject to him.

Not yet an emperor, Charles vigilantly controlled the activities of the counts; at least twice a year - during meetings - he met with them personally; and the counts whom he personally knew diligently carried out the mission entrusted to them. “... he came to them and they completely freely reported how they considered it necessary to resolve individual (issues), and frankly told what disagreements, disputes or friendly squabbles arose between them on this or that occasion.” The king himself traveled a lot around the country and could see how the counts cope with their duties. But as soon as the king began to lead a sedentary lifestyle over the years, the counts ceased, at least conscientiously, to fulfill their duties to the king, referring to being busy with the affairs of their provinces, they did not attend General Assemblies for an hour. Therefore, the number of special inspectors - "sovereign envoys", over time, Karl even has to increase.

Thus, the institution of managers - counts - was founded, which existed until the end of the 8th century.

Clerics, bishops, and abbots were also included in the system of secular power. “Bishops, abbots, abbesses and counts are obliged to be in harmony with each other and with the law, so that they can do justice in justice, mercifully and without disturbing the peace; but they must live in accordance with the prescriptions of the Lord, so that justice will always triumph in our state, and they would administer this justice in justice, they would also live with justice among themselves.

Their role is very significant, it is explained by the important function that was assigned to the church by the king, who acted as its head. The clerics did not have certain positions in the secular administration, but one cannot fail to note their power, as well as the power of some laymen who did not occupy positions in the administrative hierarchies of marks and counties, but were directly connected with the king. Within their territories, they enjoyed well-defined rights granted for their merits and thus contributed to the creation of the Carolingian world order. “Let everyone who occupies a high position oversee those who are subordinate to him, and, in case of need, exert coercion, so that those subordinates regularly obey and just as regularly fulfill their duties, as well as imperial orders and orders.”

“Charlemagne carried out an administrative reform that established a monarchy, which was controlled by the king, the palace court and the chancelleries headed by the chancellor. The monarch's henchmen controlled the activities of the local counts.

These are the foundations of the functioning of the system of government of Charlemagne.

“The great merit of Charles lies in the fact that he was able to put in order and put into practice the correct administration of the country, which contributed to its appeasement. And if the first means of uniting the empire is considered the personality of Emperor Charles, and the second - his reytags, then the third means of uniting the heterogeneous constituent parts of the empire were undoubtedly the officials appointed by him. The whole state was divided into districts (gau), royal officials were placed everywhere, counts for the collection of troops, administration and justice.

Charlemagne

Chapter 2. Military organization, vassalage and immunity

The Carolingian army during the first 20 years of the reign of Charlemagne was the main instrument of war and conquest. Initially, the king had the support of a small group of warriors from his entourage, connected with him by ties of kinship and devoted friendship. Gradually, as the conquered territories grew, the army, recruited from the free inhabitants of the kingdom, became the main force subject to the king. Every free man who reached 12 years old and up to old age could be called up for military service; the determination of the upper limit of service age was the responsibility of the counts. “When the Sovereign Emperor gives an order for a campaign, let no one dare to disobey him, and let not a single count be so impudent as to let anyone who is obliged by military service be released from the army in any way, sheltering by kinship or being bribed with gifts” . This was how an army was created, the number of which at any moment could be significantly increased by conscription. Usually every spring there was a military gathering of troops near the place of military operations. Then followed “...two - three months (and sometimes more) of continuous battles with the enemy: either the conquest of new territories, or the reconquest of previously conquered ones, or the pacification of recalcitrant rebellions. After that, often another campaign caused by some unplanned event. Then the dissolution of the army until next year and the rest of the king in one of the royal villas.

Charles collected all the decisions on military service in the capitularies (codes of laws), which began with the indication that only free Franks were called up to the army.

“Everyone who, being free, ... let him equip himself and join the army at his own expense, either for his lord, if a lord enters, or for his count.” The presence of developed large land ownership made it possible to have a significant number of heavily armed horsemen, while the vassal squads of royal beneficiaries became the main core of the army. Military historian G. Delbrück calculated the cost of arming one warrior. He writes: “In one old Frankish folk law, a detailed price of weapons and livestock is indicated; if we compare these figures and express the cost of equipment in units of livestock, we get the following: helmet - 6 cows, armor - 12 cows, greaves - 6 cows, spear and shield - 2 cows, warhorse - 12 cows.

Thus, the equipment of one fighter was equal to the value of 45 cows, or - since 3 cows were equivalent to 1 mare - 15 mares, the cost of the cattle of an entire village. The horseman, clad in iron armor, was invulnerable to the enemy. In this regard, the combat importance of the heavy cavalry, which now constituted a significant part of the army, increased. At the same time, measures were taken to preserve and improve the infantry.

The continuous wars of the Franks required colossal and well-timed manpower reserves. Strong garrisons were needed to hold the conquests. “Much attention was paid to consolidating the gains. Castles, guard posts, a fleet at the mouths of rivers, scars and a quick collection of troops - all this reliably ensured the security of the territory of a vast state.

Karl, continuing the traditions of his father and grandfather, practiced a mixed recruitment system. On the one hand, he widely used and expanded the military reform of Charles Martel, creating a stable core of the army - "service people", beneficiaries. “First of all, everyone who has beneficiaries is obliged to join the army.” For regular service, these soldiers, as before, were given benefits - land grants from state funds. At the same time, the king did not neglect the ancient system of conscription, preserved from the times of the Merovingians. However, the king did not conduct a general call every time; it was impossible for the sake of every war to deprive the country of labor. Avoiding military service was almost impossible. “I’ll tell you about our people, as well as the people of bishops and abbots who hold benefices or own their own lands ... If one of them is found at home at a time when he should be in the army, and he will make excuses, claiming that he paid a fine or received from his lord exemption from service, such a person is sentenced to a fine. To obtain exemption from conscription, it was necessary not only to have good reasons, but also to obtain permission from a superior person. A stubborn struggle was waged against turnout evasion by imposing large fines (60 solidi, or the cost of 60 cows). “Every free man who will be called up for military service and neglects to turn out, let him pay a full penalty, that is, 60 solidi, ..”.

Weak free peasants were exempted from military service. At his disposal 811g. Karl blames, "... the weak are forced to go to the army, and those who can give something are released back home."

Anyone who was obliged to go on a campaign, but who was late for the appointed time, was subject to a penalty.

Every year, the king sent orders to the bishops, counts and large landowners of certain areas, ascribing to appear at the appointed time, at the place of assembly, having with him all his people, horse and foot, armed and uniformed. "And let the bishops, counts and abbots take care of their people, so that they arrive at the meeting on the indicated day, well equipped, in armor and helmets ...".

Each warrior was obliged to join a detachment led by either a count, or an abbot, or a bishop, or some seigneur with power. The warrior had to purchase equipment, a horse and provisions for several months at his own expense. “And you must arrive ... along with your people, well armed and in full uniform, ready to go on a campaign in the direction that I will indicate; and your people must take with them weapons, equipment, and everything necessary for the conduct of war, including food and clothing. Each rider must have a shield, spear, sword, bow and quiver of arrows. On the carts they will carry all kinds of tools, axes, axes, drills, cleavers, picks, iron shovels and other tools necessary for the campaign. Also, provisions will be transported on carts, which should be enough for three months, starting from the day of the campaign, as well as weapons and clothing, which should be enough for six months.

Military operations were usually conducted in the summer, so the Carolingian warrior had the right to return home with the onset of winter, those who left the army earlier were threatened with the death penalty.

The army was made up of free men. The poorest of them armed themselves with what they could, which, in the opinion of the king, was reprehensible. "Let no one go on a campaign with a club, but with a bow." To ensure that the soldiers were well armed, Karl issued several legislative acts. “The one who owns three manses, let him unite with the one who has one manse, and let him help him so that he can go to the army for the two of them. And the one who has two mansas, let him unite with the one who also has two mansas, and let one of them, with the help of the second, equip himself and go to military service. To the one who has one manse, let three more join, also having one of the manse each, and let them help one of them to equip himself and go to the army. The king does not forget about those who have very little land. “Those who have half a mansa of land, let six of them unite and gather one into an army. And those poor people whose property is worth no more than five solidi, let them do the same, that is, let them send one of the six. Every poor person who goes on a campaign against the enemy should be given five solidi. Large landowners had to have a horse, armor, spear, sword and serve in heavy cavalry. The less prosperous Franks, from which the infantry was formed, came to the service with a spear, a shield, a bow with two bowstrings and 12 arrows. The poorest of them performed only with bows and arrows and served as archers. “And the count himself, let him see if they are equipped with a spear, a shield, a bow with two bowstrings and twelve arrows. All of the above should have. Bishops, counts, abbots should have such people who would be well equipped with all this and would arrive at the meeting on the appointed day and show their equipment there. Yes, they have a shell and a leather helmet. Widespread throwing weapons - francisca, i.e. an ax with one or two blades, to the handle of which a rope was tied. Frank deftly threw Francis at close range.

For one military campaign, 5-6 thousand soldiers gathered. This number did not include servants, wagonmen, muleteers, and other wagon staff.

Castles and watchtowers were built to secure borders and keep conquered tribes in subjection. At the mouths of the rivers, a fleet was created to protect from the sea from the attacks of the Scandinavian tribes - the Normans. “During the period of the Norman war, he took up the construction of the fleet, building ships for this on the rivers ... which flow into the ocean ... parking lots for ships were arranged by his order and patrol ships were put up in order to prevent the enemy from invading. The same was done in the south, along the coasts of the Narbonne province and Septimania, as well as along the entire coast of Italy, up to Rome ... ".

In the border zone and in large cities there were skars - permanent detachments formed from professional warriors. Karl had the biggest scars. They could make independent military campaigns. In a great war, these scars were the core of the army, which consisted of a militia of free peasants, medium and large farmers.

Under Charles, long shields, longbows, chest armor, helmets and chain mail were introduced. The number of cavalry warriors was significantly increased and almost equaled the number of foot soldiers. All residents of the country were obliged to supply the troops with a certain amount of grain in grain, food supplies, fodder, horses, pack animals and carts. In addition, each county had to have special supplies of food for the passing troops. "And every earl must save two parts of the hay in his county for the needs of the army and have good bridges, good rafts."

At the head of the army were commanders elected among the counts, known for their military talents - the dukes .. The duties assigned to the duke were primarily associated with military operations, so the ducal title could well be considered temporary. After the onset of peace, the duke lost his importance, again took the title of count and returned to his county. Karl himself, and later his sons personally, often commanded armies in military campaigns.

Sharing all the hardships of military life, the king, who was in the army, was sure that, conquering new lands for the people of the Franks, he was working not only for material benefits, but also for the great goal of spreading Christianity.

The main service in the empire was military service. To protect the borders of his empire from constant attacks from outside, one of the main goals of Charlemagne was to create a chain of guarded borders or marks. The system of these stamps was supposed to be a guarantee of the security of the state.

Marks are fortified military-administrative districts that serve as outposts for attacking neighboring countries and organizing defense. The margraves appointed by the king, endowed with broad judicial, administrative and military powers, ruled the marks. They had a permanent military force at their disposal.

The main goal of the military reform of Charles Martel was to create more combat-ready troops from the cavalry and infantry than the peasant militia. Taking this as a basis, Charlemagne, first of all, strives to increase the professional cavalry army, as a more mobile and combat-ready unit. Equestrian warriors could only be wealthy people who had the means to keep a war horse and have the necessary weapons. Charlemagne, like his grandfather and father, gave them lands as benefices (grants), that is, the land was given for service and only for the duration of the service of the recipient and holder. “And all those who hold benefices must first of all go to the army.” The one who received the beneficiary became a vassal (dependent on the terms of ownership), took an oath of allegiance and performance of the assigned service (the commandation - the oath is carried out on holy relics, accompanied by certain gestures, in particular, as a sign of the obligations assumed, the seigneur takes the vassal's hands folded together in his , sometimes in addition to the oath, a written contract is drawn up, called an agreement; the granting beneficiary became a seigneur (senior, lord) and retained the right of supreme ownership of the granted land, could take it away if the vassal violated his duty.

Charlemagne encouraged the establishment of vassal ties both with him personally and in society as a whole, thus striving to. extend their power not only to the immediate environment, but also to the most remote corners of the empire. To this end, he made obscure private individuals, loyal and distinguished in battle, royal vassals. As a result, he created a large group of people personally devoted to him, connected with him by vassal ties. Some of them received from him beneficiaries for life. Among the royal beneficiaries were many people of humble origin. "The warrior from the Spanish brand, John" took the oath of vassalage with the investment of hands "after he defeated the army of Muslims in the vicinity of Barcelona ...". The personal vassals of the sovereign, in fact, become governors, exercising power in parallel with the administration of counts and bishops. “Now,” Guillermoz notes in his study, “relations with vassals have become so important that vassal service began to attract not only people of low and middle origin and social status, but also the powerful of this world.” Vassals of Charles received gifts from him and sent gifts to him themselves. The emperor's vassals accompanied and protected his envoys, military commanders making inspection trips, and extended hospitality to officials arriving from Aachen. In the districts, their authority was based precisely on a personal vassal connection with the emperor. These people were the main support of Charlemagne in the field, since their power was a counterbalance to the power of the counts, sometimes prone to disobedience. “...Charles with the intention did not provide any earl with more than one county for government, excluding those that occupied the borders adjacent to the barbarians; likewise did not give any bishop the royal abbey or church, unless special circumstances required it. To the questions of his advisers and close associates about the reason for this, he answered: “In doing so, I can, with the help of this or that estate, or estate, or small abbey, or church, secure the loyalty of a vassal as good or even better than another count or bishop".

Charlemagne also supported the establishment of vassal relations between free people. “After the death of his lord, every free person has the right to become a vassal of whomever he himself wishes ... And the person who is not yet a vassal also has the right to choose his own lord.” In the capitulary, Karl also indicates the reasons for the departure of the vassal “No one has the right to leave his signor after he has received property worth one solidus from him, except in cases where the seigneur wants to kill him, beat him with a stick, dishonor his wife or his daughter, or take he has a fiefdom." The conditions under which a vassal loses his benefice are also prescribed. “If one of our loyal subjects wants to engage in a duel with his opponent and calls on one of his vassals to help him, and this vassal is in no hurry to come to his aid, the beneficiaries can be taken away from such a vassal and transferred to another.”

The free, but the poor, received equipment from the lord in exchange for lifelong assistance. “We think that since this year there has been a great famine in many places, bishops, abbots, abbesses, lords, earls, and all our faithful subjects holding benefices royal, ecclesiastical or otherwise, are obliged to use the income from these beneficiaries to feed those who who is under their control.

The beneficiary system accelerated the formation of feudal ownership of land and the feudal subjugation of the peasants. The military profession turned into a monopoly of feudal lords - knights.

The emergence of vassal ties was directly related to the military needs of society. The vassal holding the benefice was to be the first to go into battle. Not every warrior was a vassal, but every vassal had to become a warrior at the first call. "In the first place, those who have beneficiaries must go against the enemy." Over time, the beneficiaries became hereditary possessions, and then the property of vassals. In addition, the royal vassals, who had a lot of land, distributed part of it as beneficiaries to their vassals and became seigneurs, only formally dependent on the king.

At the end of VIII - beginning of IX centuries. vassal-lena relations were widely spread in the military organization and political structure of the Franks. The army largely consisted of mounted warriors endowed with benefices; royal vassals were appointed to government posts. It even strengthened the state system.

The military profession began to turn into a monopoly of the feudal lords, but the peasants nevertheless did not get rid of the hardships of war. They were forced to participate in campaigns as infantry and auxiliary forces, to pay military tax. “We wish that our envoys this year will strictly collect a military fine without any partiality, pleasing or fear, according to our command, that is, from a person who owns 6 livres in gold, silver, armor, iron tools, fabrics, horses, bulls , cows or other livestock (wives and children for this should not be deprived of clothing), it is necessary to levy a legal penalty, namely 3 livres. And whoever has the movable property described above only worth 3 livres, 30 solidi should be exacted from him, so that another time he will be able to arm himself for the service of God and for the benefit of us. And let our envoys watch so that no one, through malicious intent, deviates from our justice, surrendering to the hand of someone else.

As a result of the transformations of Charlemagne, the old popular militia was done away with. The army began to acquire a feudal-chivalrous appearance.

The royal power did not prevent the growth of the private power of the feudal lords, but even contributed to it. The king gave ecclesiastical and secular feudal lords immunity letters, freeing their possessions from any interference in them by state employees. At the same time, judicial and administrative power over the population and all the funds that used to go to the state treasury passed into the hands of the immunists. “... we, at the request of the bishop ... granted him, for the sake of earning an eternal recompense, such a privilege that not a single state official at any time dares to enter the estates of the church, as in our time granted to her by us or by anyone else, and henceforth having been acquired by his Eminence into the power of this holy monastery, nor for the recovery of judicial fines from various persons; but the bishop himself and his deputies must, in the name of God and by the right of inviolable immunity, possess these powers... reclamation of fines, or for the use of accommodation, the collection of feed and the taking of guarantors; and everything that the treasury could expect to receive from free or unfree and other people living on the lands or within the boundaries of the church territory, will go ... to the disposal of the officials of the church, .. ".

Immunity strengthened the right to own land. “... we granted a glorious husband ... an estate ... with all income and lands ... Therefore, by our real power we determine and order to keep inviolable forever ... the aforementioned estate, in all its integrity with lands, houses, buildings, columns, slaves, vineyards, forests, roles , meadows, pastures, waters ... had been granted forever, as a complete immunist, with a ban on employees (ours) of any entry in order to recover court fines in any cases. And let him own it ... and do with it, at our pleasure, whatever you like.

On the immune territory, the votchinnik was the only master, he had power not only over the dependent, but also over the free population living within his possessions.

Charlemagne tried to use immunity as a tool to strengthen state power. “We believe that the power of our state is multiplied to the greatest extent if we freely decide to grant useful privileges to churches or to anyone else and prescribe that these privileges, under God's protection, continue to be strong in the future.”

The immunists were also responsible for maintaining order and gathering militia on their territory.

However, the expansion of immunity privileges benefited only the big feudal lords and was one of the prerequisites for the subsequent political fragmentation.

So Charlemagne created a highly effective military system, although in many respects inferior to the military organization of the Macedonians, Romans, Byzantines. "Thanks to Charlemagne, the military system of the Franks was dominated by exceptional energy and discipline." “Towards the end of his reign, he organized a system of conscription for military service through his subjects, vassals, who provided the army with manpower, that is, Fr. without overloading the economy of the state with additional expenses, without depleting local resources, but by maintaining law and order.

Charlemagne established a system in which the army did not need anything for a few weeks to several months. Replenishment of stocks was carried out in an organized manner, convoys to the places of action were accompanied by a convoy. This allowed Charlemagne to campaign a thousand miles from France, even during the winter months, something Western Europe had not known since the time of the ancient Romans.

Charlemagne revived the Roman and Macedonian practice of using siege carts ... Moreover, by increasing the number of his cavalry, accompanied by pack mules, he was able to strike quickly and powerfully.

A key element of the military strategy of Charlemagne was the use of castles and watchtowers, which were built along the borders in all conquered provinces and were connected to each other by road. Other paths were also laid, leading from each frontier fortification to the old frontier. The fortifications filled with supplies became bases for the maneuver of the disciplined Frankish cavalry, and were also used by the Franks to prepare for further operations.

Charlemagne brought the bow back into the arsenals of Western Europe, however, for unclear reasons, the bow was again discounted in the armies of Western Europe after the death of Charlemagne.

Charlemagne also created an excellent intelligence network. The nature of Charlemagne's orders testifies to his own high professionalism and to the existence of an effective staff system he created. “The main elements of the system of Charlemagne are reflected in the five capitularies - the system of manning the troops; organization of units and units, weapons, armor, equipment that a particular unit should have; a list of punishments for misdemeanors, etc.” All this, together with the Christianization of the population, contributed to the conquest of new territories and keeping in obedience those conquered earlier.

Chapter 3. The Church in the Empire of Charlemagne

All the activities of Charlemagne were permeated with a religious spirit. "Charlemagne favored the Church, comparing it with the soul, and the state with the human body."

The church became an instrument for the emperor, allowing him to take spiritual responsibility for the society entrusted to him. The elevation of Charles to the imperial throne turned him into a representative of God authorized to establish an order in which everyone would take the place allotted to him by the Creator, and establish peace, allowing everyone, in conditions of justice and mercy, to participate in building the “city of God” on earth. “Let everyone live in justice, following the law of God ... let the clergy strictly observe the canons of faith, not seeking unjust enrichment; let the monks fulfill the rules of the hostel under the attentive gaze of mentors; let the laity and priests use the laws justly and without treachery, let everyone build relationships among themselves on the basis of mercy and complete peace ... Let each, to the best of his understanding and his strength, strive to devote himself completely to the service of God on the basis of the law of God and in accordance with his solemn obligations, because the reigning emperor is not able to cover everyone and everyone with his supervision and his discipline.

Karl sought to become the only mediator between God and his subjects, divided into three classes: the clergy, monks and laity. He wanted to concentrate in his hands all power over the church; although he always maintained close ties with the papacy established by his father, but as having received power by God's providence, he would never allow the spiritual authority of the pope to be higher than his own. “We are making efforts to correct mistakes, to eliminate what is superfluous, and to promote what is considered just ... Truly we can read in the Book of Kings about how Josiah brought his kingdom entrusted to him by the Lord to the service of the true Lord, how he walked in the ways necessary, how he destroyed the pagan temples and how he instructed the people in the correct faith ... ".

“I say this not to compare my merits with his holiness, but because it is our duty to always and in everything follow the example of the saints, because we must gather everyone we can to lead them to a righteous life in honor and glory of our Lord Jesus Christ.

Here is the basis of the plan of Emperor Charles, which he strictly followed throughout his life with the help of the councils that he convened, the capitularies that set out the decisions of the councils adopted under his leadership, and letters where, along with reprimands, he expressed benevolent advice.

Charles took part not only in the meetings of the synods (794,798, 800, 813), but also in the development of relevant decisions, and contributed to their adoption. "Karl considered himself a doctor of faith, taking authoritarian positions in matters of dogmas, disputes about which shook the church in those years and formulated them in the capitularies."

He strongly opposed Adoptianism and iconoclasm. In 1813 five church councils held in different parts of the country developed a large program of reforms, which the bishops entrusted to fulfill the emperor “... a pious, most devoted servant of the Lord, through whose efforts the fountain of holy wisdom springs up, tirelessly distributing holy food to the lambs of Christ, so that they may be brought up in the spirit of holy teachings , a true leader, multiplying by his tireless work the number of peoples who believe in Christ ... a true leader who surpassed all the kings of the earth with his holy wisdom and his zeal and piety ... ".

It can be said that the emperor was the true head of the Frankish church. He sought to restructure the church hierarchy so that its threads converged not to the pope, but to him personally. “... the papacy was pushed into the background: the price of protection was submission. Charles was not only the political, but also the ecclesiastical and cultural leader of the empire. In the same hands, in order to unite the empire, he combined secular and ecclesiastical power. The emperor created bishoprics, convened councils, and directed theological discussions, included the clergy in the state organization.

The reign of Charlemagne is characterized by the phenomenon of a gradual complete merging of imperial laws with religious laws. As an ecclesiastical legislator, he communicated his decisions through the capitularies. Some of which are addressed to bishops and abbots, largely repeat the synodal decrees of that time. Instructions addressed to the clergy can sometimes be found in secular capitularies, for example, in the capitulary for messengers. Here is an excerpt from one “Priests, deacons and other ministers of the church should not let women who are not their relatives into their homes ... Monks and clerics should not go to drink and eat in taverns ... Only canonical books should be read in churches ... No one is allowed to be ordained for money... Clerics should not wander from city to city... No deacon should be ordained, no virgin should be admitted to a monastery before the age of 25... False martyrs should not be honored... Bishops and other clergymen should be well know the canonical charter and observe it…”.

Charles was engaged in the arrangement of all church life in his empire. He made decisions about appointments to important ecclesiastical positions, selecting candidates from among the courtiers, even from the laity, if they were sufficiently competent in matters of religion. Personally defined tasks for each newly appointed. Charles demanded from his bishops and archbishops reports on their activities the same as those given to him by counts and governors. This is evidenced by the epistle of Bishop Leidrad in 801. “When you sent me to lead this church, you deigned to point out to me some of the shortcomings that took place there; you kindly suggested that I should be careful and considerate in order to correct the mistakes made and avoid possible mistakes in the future. The fact is that this church at that time was deprived of much that was necessary for its internal and external activities, for its services and buildings, for the performance of other church functions. Deign now to listen to what has been done since the arrival here of your obedient servant with God's and your help ... ".

The church reform begun by his grandfather and father, he spread and continued throughout the Frankish Empire. Despite the fact that Charles Christianized the peoples of Europe with the help of the sword, at the same time he made great efforts to spiritually correct society and the Church. By the time of the reign of Charles, the licentiousness of morals that reigned in society was also fully characteristic of the clergy. He personally contributed to the strengthening of discipline and morality among the ministers of the faith. “You call yourself either monks or canons, or sometimes neither. Watching your interests and wanting to dispel your bad reputation, we have chosen for you an abbot and leader, calling him from a distant province, so that with his speeches and his advice he will guide you on the true path, and with his good example return you to the path of truth. But alas! Everything turned out differently, and you became the servants of the devil and sow discord among the wise and learned people of the church. And if you are monks and canons, your guilt does not become less from this, for you have shown disobedience to us, which means that you will stand trial on the day that our messenger will name you.

Being at the top of the church hierarchy of his empire, he zealously monitored, organized and raised the level of intra-church discipline. “The bishop has the right to punish the monks of his province, and if they do not heed his admonitions, the archbishop must call them to the synodal court, and if they still do not correct themselves, then let the bishop bring them to us for our court.” He paid attention to the organization of the management of the clergy. “Each bishop in his diocese is obliged to distribute priests according to rank, according to canon law ... Each bishop in his diocese is obliged to oversee the priests and clergy, and if he meets fugitives, let him send them to their own bishops ... The bishop is obliged to control the collection of tithes and inquire for what purposes the priest intends to use it.

It is precisely the bishops that the emperor places at the center of religious life and assigns them a large role in the management structures of his administration. “Bishops must make a detour of the parishes entrusted to them and conduct an inquiry whether anyone has committed incest, patricide, fratricide, adultery, or any other crime that is contrary to the law of God and not permitted by Christian laws.”

“Bishops and abbots should have their own attorneys who would own their own property in the county, who would be honest and just and would have a desire to judge cases with honor and justice.”

In 774 Having received from Rome a list of ecclesiastical provinces formed in the Late Roman Empire, Charlemagne began the gradual restoration of ecclesiastical metropolises. By 811 21 metropolises were restored, later three more, which received the status of archbishoprics, and the clergy who headed them were ranks of archbishops. Their duties were spelled out by Charles in the capitularies. "... Each archbishop is charged with the duty to control the priests entrusted to him ...". Throughout the reign of Charlemagne, bishops, and later archbishops, were the main force in arranging the church, and sometimes secular life of the territories entrusted to them. The emperor could entrust them with any assignment, power over the life of parishioners, supervision over monasteries.

Carl was also engaged in bringing the administration of church services, rites and sacraments into a uniform form for all. He introduced Latin into church services everywhere. The clerics were given a monopoly on services and prayers, which had once been the business of the entire people, who in their mass did not know Latin. Work was carried out to unify the liturgy, it was divided into parts. The priest still plays the main role in it, but now clerics, deacons, readers, singers actively participate in it, who, depending on the functions performed and according to their specialization, come into action at a certain time of the service.

“It was hard for us to endure how during our reign, in the middle of the service, solecisms irritating the ear sounded, and we instructed Paul the Deacon, our friend, to do the work of straightening the sacred texts ... He obeyed us and soon presented us with two collections, where there were texts read on holidays, each text for its own holiday, and there were enough texts for the whole year, and all of them were corrected and without errors. After carefully reviewing all the collections, we approved them by the authority given to us and now we are sending them to you so that you can read them in churches.

Each rank of clergy was informed of the will of the emperor regarding the choice of texts, manner of reading, euphony and harmony of chants.

Lay believers listen to sermons, admire church decorations, take communion, but no longer approach the altar, donations are transferred to the priest at the end of the service. They are required to respect and honor the Lord's house on earth. However, this is not so easy to achieve, so the emperor has to repeatedly indicate in his capitularies that the church should have decent decoration, the altars should be honored, according to their greatness. You should not go behind the sacred altar, carry on idle talk in churches and decide your own affairs. “All believers must receive communion and listen to the entire Mass, to the very last prayer…

Everyone is obliged to observe Sunday, according to the law and according to the decree of the sovereign of our emperor. “Churches and altars must be kept in order, and priests should not keep grain or hay in church premises ... Each church should have its worthy decoration, and the altars should be honored, according to their greatness and rank. Dogs should not be allowed to run around the house of the Lord and go behind the sacred altar. One should also not carry on idle talk in churches and decide one’s own affairs… Only stone altars should be illuminated… And if it comes to restoring a church, then one should first make sure whether this church is one in the whole district, or whether there are several, and if they are in abundance, then let them destroy the superfluous, and maintain the necessary in due order ... ". Karl was deeply convinced that in this way he was preparing the salvation of the Christian society, entrusted to his care by the Lord God himself. This explains his desire to expand the network of monasteries and reform their life, which has ceased to be a form of social isolation, designed to atone for the sins of the world.

By the beginning of the IX century. the number of monasteries increased from 200 at the beginning of his reign to 600. His constant concern was to restore order and establish a highly moral, even ascetic way of life for monks, to bring the administration of church services, rites and sacraments into a uniform form for all. “Bishops should visit priests in their parishes, check how they conduct the rite of baptism and celebrate Mass, check whether they correctly understand the essence of the faith, and see that baptism is carried out as it should, according to the Catholic rite, so that the priests understand the prayers said in the time of the mass, so that they sang psalms as usual, observing the rhythm of verses and stanzas ... ".

Monasteries played a special role in the life of Christians. In his desire to carry out reforms in the religious and moral spheres of life, Charlemagne sought support primarily from abbots and abbesses. Monastic rules were unified. For their model, the charter of the Benedictine monastery in Monte Cassino was taken. Still allocating the main place to prayer, this charter also obliged the monks and nuns to engage in intellectual and physical labor, the fruits of which could be used not only by the monks, but also by the laity who arrived at the monastery. “It seems to us useful that the bishoprics and monasteries, the leadership of which has been entrusted to us by the grace of Christ, should be engaged in ordering the current life and behavior in accordance with the holy religion, should also devote their time to the study of Holy Scripture and the service of those who, with God's help, are ready to give themselves to these studies. ".

For the explanation and assimilation of the Holy Scriptures, schools were needed, which began to emerge near the monasteries. In the monastic scriptoria workshops, a font was created, called the Carolingian minuscule, a unified, simplified script that facilitated access to knowledge - the progenitor of our typographic fonts. Libraries were replenished with manuscripts, schools gradually specialized: for example, in the school at the Saint-Gallen monastery, they began to teach mainly church singing. The Gregorian chant, which came from Rome, required special abilities from the performers. The chorister had to read the Latin text simultaneously with the neumes, indicating the coloratura passages, the duration and nature of the voice modulations, and the cadence of the musical phrase.

The monasteries were open to the laity. In monastic buildings, schools, hospitals, refectories, workshops, one could meet people of all classes, ranks and conditions. Even in some villages, parochial schools were opened. In a letter from Charles to the abbot of the monastery in Fulda, Baugulf, we read: “We fear that, being too ignorant to write correctly, they, due to their ignorance, will not be able to correctly interpret the sacred texts. We all know how dangerous it is to make mistakes in the spelling of words, but mistakes in the meaning of words are even more dangerous. Therefore, we urge with all diligence to study not only literacy but also literature, and to apply for this all the strength and humility, as well as the zeal that is pleasing to the Lord ... When you need to conduct a service, choose people who would have both the will and the ability to learn, and would also like to pass on their knowledge to others. It is desirable for us that you be, as befits the soldiers of the Church, both pious and scholars... Do not be lazy to send a copy of this letter to all bishops, to all monasteries, if it is desirable for you to earn our mercy.”

Alcuin, a friend and adviser of Charles, on behalf of the emperor, verified, corrected and brought the text of the Bible to a single order. Other liturgical works were verified and corrected for errors. Works of contemporaries began to appear - annals, lives of saints, epic poems. New manuscripts of old works were made, copied and recopied from copies that were rare even at that time, thanks to which many of them have survived to our time. The text of the Creed, at the direction of the emperor, was to be sung in church services, not read. Everything from the baptismal ceremony to the taking of the last communion, from the solemn mass to the last divine service, was revised, systematized and unified at the will of the emperor. The content, time and addresses of the prayers were determined. Charles took control of the worship of relics and the tombs of saints, over which chapels were erected. The churches were rebuilt, their number increased, the altars in them were modeled after the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome was turned to the west. The inhabitants of the empire also had their own requirements. The people had to exert diligence and learn at least two prayers, Our Father and the Symbol of the Apostolic Faith. “Each priest is obliged to teach the Lord's Prayer and the Creed to each person, which he is supposed to observe ... Every priest is obliged not only to teach the Our Father prayer, but also to explain the Creed to the flock. Every lay person should know the Our Father and the Creed.”

In the era of Charlemagne, religion was all the components of the universe. It permeated the whole society, economy, administration, royal administrative structures. The idea of ​​St. Augustine about the construction of the "City of God", about the divine order on earth, according to which each of the people was placed by God in his place on earth and must fulfill the mission that fell to his lot, pretended to be Charlemagne with the greatest possible effort in life, so that everyone's place was clear and defined.

Chapter 4. Conclusion

Charlemagne became in 754. King of the Franks, died in 814. holder of the imperial title. Having gone from king to emperor, Charles, according to Alcuin, becomes "the beacon of the Christian world", or, as they say now, the founder of Western European civilization. The vast Frankish empire was made up of many different peoples, only Christianity and the mighty will of Charlemagne kept these peoples united. That is why the activities of Charlemagne left a deep mark on history. It can be viewed from three main points of view:

) as a warrior and conqueror;

) as administrator and legislator;

) as the patron of sciences, arts and intellectual development in general.

The wars of Charlemagne differed significantly from the wars of the preceding dynasty. These were no longer clashes of one tribe with another, and not campaigns undertaken with the sole purpose of capturing and plundering. These were systematic, political wars, caused by plans, prescribed by a certain necessity. Leading them, he sought to enslave hostile tribes, exterminate their religious beliefs and spread Christianity everywhere as a means of uniting the conquered peoples.

Charlemagne, as a ruler and legislator in the state of the Franks, managed to introduce the Roman idea, try it on with local customs, clarify it and make it more accessible. He adapted the Roman laws to the world of the Franks, to the Christian people. Taking into account the local characteristics and traditions of the peoples they conquered, for each separate region its own model of governance was created - of course, while maintaining a single general leadership. In the society, the foundations of which Charles laid, he contributed to the formation of the vassal and domain systems.

The multilateral administrative activity of Karl was mainly aimed at encouraging the people to practical activities - agriculture, crafts, and trade. He created all the conditions for this - security from external intrusions and internal order.

Charlemagne can undoubtedly be called one of the outstanding Christian rulers. The emperor built his state on a religious foundation, the state structure was subordinated to Christian principles. Having assumed the mission of "defender of the Church", Charles subordinated it to himself, and to strengthen the political influence of his state, he used the preaching of Christianity.

Despite the fact that Charles Christianized the peoples of Europe with the help of the sword, at the same time he made great efforts to spiritually correct society and the Church, in every possible way contributed to raising the level of pastoral preaching, which was supposed to become accessible to the common man and serve as his guide in life. He categorically forbade the clergy to take part in secular affairs: trade, wars, etc., encouraged charity, caring for the poor. He made every effort to develop religious and secular culture, introduced elementary education for the people, the basis of which was the Bible.

As a truly great man, Emperor Charles was at the same time a warrior, a statesman, a commander, and a ruler. He created a state that linked together many strong peoples inhabiting the borders of modern Europe, giving them a state system. It was based on the mind and will of only one great figure - the emperor of the Franks - Charlemagne, therefore, despite the fact that the empire of Charles fell apart in less than 30 years after his death into three states within modern borders, these are France, Germany and Italy. It was the empire of Charlemagne that was the progenitor of the image of modern European civilization. Having become the head of the Christian world, he laid the foundation for a strong state organization and thus earned the name "Great", which is given to the figures of a solid foundation for a new world-historical development.

Literature

Sources

1. Eingard. Life of Charlemagne // Lewandowski A.P. Charlemagne. Through the Empire to Europe - M.: Companion, 1995. - 272 p.

The general capitulary of Charlemagne for the sovereign's envoys (802) // Devyataikina N.I., Mananchikova N.P. Workshop on the history of the Middle Ages - Voronezh.: Izd. VGU, 1999. - 240 p.

Capitulary on the accomplishment of justice (811 - 813 years) // Devyataikina N.I., Mananchikova N.P. Workshop on the history of the Middle Ages - Voronezh: Izd. VGU, 1999. - 240 p.

MGH Capitulary, I, p. 125 // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne // Per. from French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

Geristal capitulary, (779) MGH Capitularia, I, p. 54 // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne // Per. from French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

MGH Epistolae Karolini Aevi, II, p.84 // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. from French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

7. Admonitio Generalis, 789, MGH Capitularia, I, p. 62// Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. from French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. -176 p.

MGH Capitulary, I (802 - 813), p.172 // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. from French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

9. Hincmar. De Ordine Palatii / Ed. M. Prou, 29 a 36) // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. from French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. -176 p.

Capitulary (802) VGH Cahitularia, I, p. 91// Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. from French -M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

MGH Capitulary, I, p.183 // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. from French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

12. Capitulare legi ribuariae addinum (803). MGH Capitularia, I, p. 117 // Musso Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. from French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

Ibid. R. 118 // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. from French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

14. MGH Capitularia, I, p. 93 // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

Capitulary 810. MGH Capitularia, I, p.153. // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

Capitularia, I, after. 50 // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

Capitulary on nomesties / Levandovsky A.P. Charlemagne. Through the Empire to Europe - M.: Companion, 1995. - 272 p.

18. MGH Cappitularia (808), I, p. 137 . // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

Letter from Charlemagne to Bishop Fulrad. MGH Leges. Capitularia, I, p. 168 // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

MGH Cappitularia, I, p. 134 . // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

21. MGH Cappitularia, I, p. 132 . // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

22. MGH Cappitularia (806), I, p. 128 . // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

Admonitio Generalis, 789, MGH Capitularia, I, p. 53 - 62 Capitulary "General Warning" // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. from French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

Letter from the bishops assembled at Mainz in 813 / MGH Consilia Karolini Aevi, I, p. 258-273 // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. from French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

25. Capitulare missorum speciale MGH Capitularia, I, p.102 // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. from French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

Letter to the monks of the monastery of St. Martin of Tours. Patrologie Latine, vol.

98, ep.XVIII. // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. from French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

Capitulary to the Messengers (802) MGH Cappitularia, I, p. 92. // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. 176 p.

MGH Capitularia (802 - 813), I, p.103,119,174,178) // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

801-803 lbid., p.170// Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

803 lbid., p.172 // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

31. MGH Capitularia (813), I, p.173. // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

32. MGH Capitularia, I, p.78. // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

Capitularies of 806 and 810 MGH Capitularia, I, p.133, 146 // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

MGH Capitularia (802,803,806,810), I, p. 103,115,133,146,178 // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. 176 p.

Patroligie Latin / Ed. Migne, vol. 98,ep. III // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

MGH Capitularia, I, p. 106,111,140 // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne Per. French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

Tursky Gregory. History of the Franks / Per. from lat. - M.: Nauka, 1987. - 462

Amedee Thierry. St. Severin and the barbarian world on the Danube, before the fall of the Western Roman Empire // Stasyulevich M. M. History of the Middle Ages - St. Petersburg: Polygon Publishing House LLC, M .: AST Publishing House LLC, 1999. - 1376 p. ., ill.

Tursky Gregory. The reign of Clodovey (591) // Stasyulevich M. M. History of the Middle Ages - St. Petersburg: Polygon Publishing House LLC, M .: AST Publishing House LLC, 1999. - 1376 p., ill.

Annals of Lorsh (the last third of the 8th century) // Devyataikina N.I., Mananchikova N.P. Workshop on the history of the Middle Ages - Voronezh: Izd. VGU, 1999. - 240 p.

Eginghard. Life of Charlemagne Emperor.742 -814gg. (in 820) // Stasyulevich M. M. History of the Middle Ages - St. Petersburg: Polygon Publishing House LLC, M .: AST Publishing House LLC, 1999. - 1376 p., ill.

General surrender of Charlemagne for the sovereign's envoys (802) // Delbrook G. History of military art within the framework of political history. T.3. Middle Ages. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1996. - 448 p.

General surrender of Charlemagne for the sovereign's envoys (808) MG, I, p.137 // Delbrook G. History of military art within the framework of political history. T.3. Middle Ages. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1996. - 448 p.

Capitulary for the regions west of the Seine 807 MG, I, p. 134 Delbrook G. History of military art within the framework of political history. T.3. Middle Ages. - St. Petersburg: 1996. - 448 p.

Capitulary of Boulogne from 811 MG, I, p. 166 // Delbrook G. History of military art within the framework of political history. T.3. Middle Ages. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1996. - 448 p.

Memorial from 811. MG, I, p. 165 // Delbrook G. History of military art within the framework of political history. T.3. Middle Ages. - St. Petersburg: 1996. 448 p.

Aachen Capitulary. MG, I, p. 171 // Delbrook G. History of military art within the framework of political history T.3. Middle Ages. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1996. - 448 p.

Capitulare Aquisgranenst 801 - 813 MG, I, p. 170 // Delbrook G. The history of military art within the framework of political history. T.3. Middle Ages. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1996. - 448 p.

Capitulary from 805 MG, I, 125 // Delbrook G. The history of military art within the framework of political history. T.3. Middle Ages. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1996. - 448 p. 50. Capitulary of Charlemagne on studies in the sciences (780 - 800) //

Devyataikina N.I., Mananchikova N.P. Workshop on the history of the Middle Ages - Voronezh.: Izd. VGU, 1999. - 240 p.

Monk of Saint Gall. On the deeds of Charlemagne // Devyataikina N.I., Mananchikova N.P. Workshop on the history of the Middle Ages - Voronezh.: Izd. VGU, 1999. - 240 p.

Aachen Capitulary of Charlemagne 802 // Koretsky V. M. Reader of monuments of the feudal state and the law of European countries - M .: State. Publishing house lit. 1961. - 950 p.

Ginkmar. On the palace order // Koretsky V. M. Reader of monuments of the feudal state and the law of European countries - M .: State. Publishing house lit. 1961. - 950 p. 54. From Alcuin's letter to Charlemagne (796) // Devyataikina N. I.,

Mananchikova N.P. Workshop on the history of the Middle Ages - Voronezh.: Izd. VGU, 1999. - 240 p.

From the “General Exhortation” (798) // Devyataikina N.I., Mananchikova N.P. Workshop on the history of the Middle Ages - Voronezh.: Ed. VSU, 1999. - 240 s.

From the "Acts of Charlemagne" by an unknown monk of the Saint-Gallen monastery (between 884 and 889) // Devyataikina N.I., Mananchikova N.P. Workshop on the history of the Middle Ages - Voronezh.: Ed. VSU, 1999. - 240 s.

Treaty of 806 about the division of the possessions of Charles between his sons. MGH/Capitularia, I, p.130 // Musso - Gular Rene. Charlemagne / Per. French Moscow: Ves Mir Publishing House, 2003. - 176 p. 58. Capitulary of Charlemagne for the sovereign's envoys, given in Nimvegen // Devyataikina N. I., Mananchikova N. P. Workshop on the history of the Middle Ages - Voronezh.: Izd. VSU, 1999. - 240 s.

Memorial of Charlemagne on the preparation of troops in Western Galiya (807) // Devyataikina N.I., Mananchikova N.P. Workshop on the history of the Middle Ages - Voronezh.: Izd. VSU, 1999. - 240 s.

The formula of royal immunity // Koretsky V. M. Reader of monuments of the feudal state and the law of European countries - M .: State. Publishing house lit. 1961. - 950 p. 61. The formula of the royal award // Koretsky V. M. Reader

monuments of the feudal state and the law of European countries - M .: State. Izd yur. lit. 1961. - 950 p.

Astronomer. The youth of Louis the Pious and the last years of his life (after 840) // Stasyulevich M. M. History of the Middle Ages - St. Petersburg: Polygon Publishing House LLC, M .: AST Publishing House LLC, 1999. - 1376 p., ill.

Capitulary on the church order (789) // Stasyulevich M. M. History of the Middle Ages - St. Petersburg: Polygon Publishing House LLC, M .: AST Publishing House LLC, 1999. - 1376 p., ill.

Research

64. Balandin R. K. One hundred great geniuses - M .: Veche, 2010. - 480 p.

Budanova V.P. The barbaric world of the era of the Great Migration of Nations. - M.: Science. 2000. - 544 p., ill.

Gampl F. Creators of the Empire. / Per with it. Valiano D.N., Ryvkina O.E. Rostov-on-Don.: "Phoenix", 1998. - 544 p.

Gasparov M. L. Caroline Renaissance (VIII - IX centuries) - M .: Nauka, 1970. - 263 p.

Gergey E. History of the papacy / Per. from Hung. Gromova O. V. - M.: Respublika, 1996. - 463 p.

Golovkova N. N., Egorov A. A., Podolnikov V. P. History of wars in 3 Volumes. 1t. - Rostov - on Don: Ed. "Phoenix", 1997. - 736 p.

Davis N. History of Europe / Per. from English. Menskoy T. B. - M .: OOO Izd. "AST", Transitkniga LLC, 2004. - 943 p., ill.

Devyataikina N.I., Mananchikova N.P. Workshop on the history of the Middle Ages - Voronezh.: Izd. VSU, 1999. - 240 s.

Delbrook G. History of military art within the framework of political history. T.3. Middle Ages. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1996. - 448 p.

Dobiash - Rozhdestvenskaya O.A. Culture of the Western European Middle Ages - M .: Nauka, 1987. - 351s.

Duby Georges. Europe in the Middle Ages. - Smolensk: "Polygram", 1994. - 316 p.

Dupuy R. E., Dupuy T. N. Harper Encyclopedia of Military History. World History Book 1. - St. Petersburg: LLC "Polygon Publishing House", 1997. - 937

Eger O. World history in 4 volumes. T. 2. Middle Ages. - M .: LLC "Izd. AST", 1999. - 696s., ill.

Ilovaisky D. I. Ancient history. Middle Ages. New history - M.: Sovremennik, 1997. - 526 p.

Kolesnitsky N. F. The feudal state - M .: "Enlightenment", 1967. - 272 p.

Koretsky V. M. Reader of monuments of the feudal state and law of European countries - M .: State ed. legal lit.1961. - 950 s.

Lebec S. History of France. Origin of the Franks V - IX centuries. T. I / Per. Pavlova V. - M.: Scarabey, 1993. - 353 p.

Lewandowski A.P. Charles the Great. Through the Empire to Europe - M.: Companion, 1995. - 272 p.

Manfred A. Z. History of France in 3 volumes T.1. - M.: Nauka, 1972. - 359

Men A. History of religion. Book. 2. - M.: "Publishing House Forum Infra M", 1999. - 274 p.

Montesquieu Sh. L. About the spirit of laws - M .: Thought, 1999. - 756 p.

Musso - Gular R. Charlemagne / Per. from French - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2003. - 176 p.

Piren A. The Empire of Charlemagne and the Arab Caliphate. The end of the ancient world / Per. from English. Merkulova S.K. - M.: ZAO Tsentrpoligraf, 2011. - 351 p.

Razin E. A. History of military art VI - XVI centuries. T.2. - St. Petersburg: Polygon Publishing House LLC, 1999. - 656 p.

Stasyulevich M. M. History of the Middle Ages - St. Petersburg: LLC Publishing House Polygon, LLC Firm Publishing House AST, 1999. - 1376s., Ill.

Tursky G. History of the Franks / Per. from lat. - M.: Nauka, 1987. - 462 p.

Hegermann D. Charlemagne - M .: LLC AST Publishing House, CJSC NPPP Ermak, 2003. - 687s.

Shishkov A.V. 100 great military leaders - M .: Veche, 2000. - 608s.

Tutoring

Need help learning a topic?

Our experts will advise or provide tutoring services on topics of interest to you.
Submit an application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.

The internal policy of Charlemagne is aimed mainly at the centralization of state administration (this was especially evident in the organization of regional and local government, in the introduction of the institution of royal envoys, etc.).

The most important reason for all the successes of Charlemagne was the support he enjoyed from the nobility. Karl continued the distribution of beneficiaries, honorary positions, gifts. Einhard. Decree op. p. 112 The political system created under Charles, which was based on the strengthening of vassal ties, contributed to the strengthening of the nobility. The obligation of vassals to serve the king was formalized by contracts and oaths of allegiance; ordinary free people also had to take an oath of allegiance, since 789 lists of those who took the oath were compiled.

Le Goff says that the church council at Tours, convened in 811, noted: "In many places, by various means, the property of poor people is greatly curtailed, and this is the property of those who are free, but live under the rule of powerful persons." Further, Le Goff says that church magnates and landowners are becoming the new owners of this property. Le Goff cites as an example a polyptic compiled in the ninth century at the behest of Hermione, abbe of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, an inventory of land holdings and duties of land holders. It describes twenty-four properties, nineteen of which were located in the Paris region, between Mantes and Château-Thierry. This economic power opened the way to public power for the landed magnates, largely through the process initiated by Charlemagne and his heirs. As already mentioned, Charlemagne increased the number of beneficiary gifts, obliged him to take an oath and enter into vassal relations. This was done in order to strengthen the Frankish state, Karl hoped to tie to himself not only significant people, land magnates, but also smaller landowners by vassal ties, so he encouraged his vassals to also have vassals, and ordered all the free to choose a lord. Carl's actions had almost the opposite effect. Charlemagne's Capitulary of 811 states that "the poor complain of being deprived of their property, they complain alike of bishops and abbots and trustees, counts and their centurions." Peasants went bankrupt due to church tithes, heavy taxes, high court fines

Charlemagne maintained an alliance both with the pope and with the local church hierarchy. Providing energetic assistance to the spread of Christianity, patronizing the clergy and establishing tithes for him, being on the best possible terms with the pope, Charles retained, however, full power in church administration: he appointed bishops and abbots, convened spiritual councils, and decided at the Diets decisions concerning church affairs. Charles himself was diligently engaged in the sciences; ordered to compile a grammar of the national language, in which he established the Frankish names of the months and winds; ordered to collect folk songs. He surrounded himself with scientists (Alcuin, Paul the Deacon, Einhard, Raban Moor, Theodulf) and, using their advice and assistance, sought to educate the clergy and people. In particular, he took care of the organization of schools at churches and monasteries; at his court, he set up a kind of academy for the education of his children, as well as courtiers and their sons.

Charles made an attempt to reform monasticism in accordance with the Benedictine charter, at the same time a reform of the liturgy was carried out and a single collection of sermons was compiled. In general, the attitude of the church towards him was servile, this is evidenced by the fact that Pope Leo III, after his election to the papal throne, sent Charles the keys of St. Peter and the papal banner in recognition of his authority. Sidorov A.I. The Rise and Fall of the Carolingians - M., 1999. P. 112 Charles became the defender of orthodoxy in the West, he wanted to protest the decision of the Council of Nicaea in 787.

Regarding the church, Charles issued many capitularies. One of them says that they do not offend or plunder the holy churches of God, or orphans, or pilgrims, since the emperor himself, after God and his saints, is declared their protector and patron. In many capitular acts, Charlemagne reminds the counts and bishops that their behavior must be pious: let them forgive the debts of their debtors, ransom the captives, help the oppressed, protect widows and orphans.

Charlemagne carried out a new military reform. Now only relatively wealthy free landowners who had 3-4 allotments were required to serve in the army. All mene wealthy people, primarily free peasants, had to unite in groups and put up one armed warrior at a common expense.

Thus, military power was strengthened by regularizing the collection of the militia, and Charlemagne strengthened the borders by the military organization of the marks, ruled by the margraves. He destroyed the power of the people's dukes, which seemed to him dangerous for the king.

After the military reform carried out by Charles, four peasants had to pool one warrior. Such a practice was not only ruinous for the peasantry in itself, but also for a long time tore it away from the economy, and since Charlemagne pursued an active policy of conquest, such military practice was constant. Ruined peasants gave their possessions to land tycoons in exchange for patronage and protection, the practice of transferring land to a precarium, which began under the Merovingians, was especially widespread - land ownership that the tycoon transferred to a ruined peasant on condition that certain duties were performed: military service, corvée or payment of dues - this contributed to the strengthening of the land magnates, it is precisely with this that, as Le Goff writes, "From 811, Charlemagne complained that some refuse military service under the pretext that their lord was not called up for it and they must stay with him." The situation was aggravated by such a phenomenon as immunity, which consisted in the fact that the magnate in the territories belonging to him received the right to collect taxes and taxes, used the supreme judicial power and was the leader of the military militia convened on his territory. Unable to prevent this process, the state legalized it with special letters, according to which the immune lands were no longer subject to the counts. This practice, which became widespread under the Carolingians, began, however, as early as the time of the Merovingians. In addition, after the judicial reform of Charlemagne, free peasants were deprived of an active role in the court, so they could not prevent the strengthening of the magnates through the state judiciary. "The freedom of these people ceases to imply full rights." Le Golf. Civilization of the Medieval West - M., 1992. S. 260 Often they united and revolted, however, this was ineffective, and they could not stop the "offensive" of the magnates. Charles in many of his capitularies prescribed not to allow the oppression of the peasants, however, this did not have the desired effect. If we talk about the economy associated with the processes described above, then during the reign of Charles - from the end of the 8th to the middle of the 9th century, the trend of economic growth was prevalent, as evidenced by the existence of excess products on large estates that were sold on the market, which is confirmed by a certain revival of those who had the Roman roots of cities, compared to their decline during the Late Roman Empire. The number of mints increased several times, which prompted Charles to limit the right of cities to mint coins. The growth of the money supply indicates a large scale of trade.

Connecting with the issue of land, on the orders of Charles, swamps were drained, forests were cut down, monasteries and cities were built, as well as magnificent palaces and churches (for example, in Aachen, Ingelheim).

Started in 793, the construction of a canal between Rednitz and Altmühl, which would connect the Rhine and Danube, the North and Black Seas, remained unfinished.

In 794, on the site of the thermal resort of the Celts and Romans in Aachen, Charles began the construction of a huge palace complex, completed in 798. Having first turned into the winter residence of Charles, Aachen gradually became a permanent residence, and from 807 - the permanent capital of the empire .

Carl strengthened the denier, which began to weigh 1.7 grams. Charles's fame spread far beyond his realm; embassies from foreign lands often appeared at his court, such as the embassy of Harun al-Rashid in 798.

The cultural aspirations of Charles were connected with politics - the culture of the Frankish state had to correspond to the name "empire". Karl himself was very educated for his, in many ways still barbaric time: “Not content with only his native speech, he tried to learn foreign languages. He studied Latin in such a way that he usually spoke it as if in his native language, but in Greek he understood more than he spoke." Le Golf, op. op. p. 280

Cultural reforms began with the establishment of a single canonical text of the Bible, and were generally carried out in alliance with the church.

Charlemagne purposefully encouraged secular culture, inviting philologists, architects, musicians and astronomers from all over the empire, as well as from Ireland and England, to his capital Aachen. Under the guidance of the great Anglo-Saxon scholar Alcuin, who was actually the “minister of education” of the empire for Charles (in 796, having retired from the court, he became the abbot of Tours), and with the participation of such famous figures as Theodulf, Paul the Deacon, Eingard and many others (all of them were part of the informal "Palace Academy") actively revived the education system, which received the name of the Carolingian Renaissance.

Karl himself took an active part in the work of the academy he founded: on his initiative, the correct text of the Bible was compiled; the monarch collected ancient German legends and songs (the collection, unfortunately, is almost lost); he instructed scholars to compile the grammar of his native Frankish language (this command was not carried out).

Under him, the study of classical Latin was revived, annalism was encouraged, and a whole stream of imitative poetry poured out from the pen of talented courtiers. Charles himself took grammar lessons from Alcuin and began compiling a grammar of the Germanic language. He also worked on correcting the texts of the Gospels and already in his advanced years tried to learn the difficult art of calligraphy (the mention of this fact in Eingard's biography of Karl was the basis for the false idea that he allegedly could not write). The collection of traditional short German heroic poems ordered by him, unfortunately, has not been preserved. Everywhere, new schools were opened at monasteries and churches, and provision was made for the education of the children of the poor. Under the leadership of Alcuin, scriptoria (rooms for correspondence and storage of manuscripts) were revived or established in the monasteries, where a magnificent font called "Carolingian minuscule" was used for correspondence, and copying was carried out at such a rapid pace that the lion's share of the entire heritage of antiquity has come down to us through the efforts of precisely that era. The impulse given to learning by Charlemagne continued for a full century after his death.

Domestic politics

The internal policy of Charlemagne is aimed mainly at the centralization of state administration (this was especially evident in the organization of regional and local government, in the introduction of the institution of royal envoys, etc.).

The most important reason for all the successes of Charlemagne was the support he enjoyed from the nobility. Karl continued the distribution of beneficiaries, honorary positions, gifts. The political system created under Charles, which was based on the strengthening of vassal ties, contributed to the strengthening of the nobility. The obligation of vassals to serve the king was formalized by contracts and oaths of allegiance; ordinary free people also had to take an oath of allegiance, since 789 lists of those who took the oath were compiled.

Le Goff says that the church council at Tours, convened in 811, noted: "In many places, by various means, the property of poor people is greatly curtailed, and this is the property of those who are free, but live under the rule of powerful persons." Further, Le Goff says that church magnates and landowners are becoming the new owners of this property. Le Goff cites as an example a polyptic compiled in the ninth century at the behest of Hermione, abbe of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, an inventory of land holdings and duties of land holders. It describes twenty-four properties, nineteen of which were located in the Paris region, between Mantes and Château-Thierry. This economic power opened the way to public power for the landed magnates, largely through the process initiated by Charlemagne and his heirs. As already mentioned, Charlemagne increased the number of beneficiary gifts, obliged him to take an oath and enter into vassal relations. This was done in order to strengthen the Frankish state, Karl hoped to tie to himself not only significant people, land magnates, but also smaller landowners by vassal ties, so he encouraged his vassals to also have vassals, and ordered all the free to choose a lord. Carl's actions had almost the opposite effect. Charlemagne's Capitulary of 811 states that "the poor complain of being deprived of their property, they complain alike of bishops and abbots and trustees, counts and their centurions." Peasants went bankrupt due to church tithes, heavy taxes, high court fines

Charlemagne maintained an alliance both with the pope and with the local church hierarchy. Providing energetic assistance to the spread of Christianity, patronizing the clergy and establishing tithes for him, being on the best possible terms with the pope, Charles retained, however, full power in church administration: he appointed bishops and abbots, convened spiritual councils, and decided at the Diets decisions concerning church affairs. Charles himself was diligently engaged in the sciences; ordered to compile a grammar of the national language, in which he established the Frankish names of the months and winds; ordered to collect folk songs. He surrounded himself with scientists (Alcuin, Paul the Deacon, Einhard, Raban Moor, Theodulf) and, using their advice and assistance, sought to educate the clergy and people. In particular, he took care of the organization of schools at churches and monasteries; at his court, he set up a kind of academy for the education of his children, as well as courtiers and their sons.

Charles made an attempt to reform monasticism in accordance with the Benedictine charter, at the same time a reform of the liturgy was carried out and a single collection of sermons was compiled. In general, the attitude of the church towards him was servile, this is evidenced by the fact that Pope Leo III, after his election to the papal throne, sent Charles the keys of St. Peter and the papal banner in recognition of his authority. Charles became the defender of orthodoxy in the west, he wanted to challenge the decision of the Council of Nicaea in 787.

Regarding the church, Charles issued many capitularies. One of them says that they do not offend or plunder the holy churches of God, or orphans, or pilgrims, since the emperor himself, after God and his saints, is declared their protector and patron. In many capitular acts, Charlemagne reminds the counts and bishops that their behavior must be pious: let them forgive the debts of their debtors, ransom the captives, help the oppressed, protect widows and orphans.

Charlemagne carried out a new military reform. Now only relatively wealthy free landowners who had 3-4 allotments were required to serve in the army. All mene wealthy people, primarily free peasants, had to unite in groups and put up one armed warrior at a common expense.

Thus, military power was strengthened by regularizing the collection of the militia, and Charlemagne strengthened the borders by the military organization of the marks, ruled by the margraves. He destroyed the power of the people's dukes, which seemed to him dangerous for the king.

After the military reform carried out by Charles, four peasants had to pool one warrior. Such a practice was not only ruinous for the peasantry in itself, but also for a long time tore it away from the economy, and since Charlemagne pursued an active policy of conquest, such military practice was constant. Ruined peasants gave their possessions to land tycoons in exchange for patronage and protection, the practice of transferring land to a precarium, which began under the Merovingians, was especially widespread - land ownership that the tycoon transferred to a ruined peasant on condition that certain duties were performed: military service, corvée or payment of dues - this contributed to the strengthening of the land magnates, it is precisely with this that, as Le Goff writes, "From 811, Charlemagne complained that some refuse military service under the pretext that their lord was not called up for it and they must stay with him."

The situation was aggravated by such a phenomenon as immunity, which consisted in the fact that the magnate in the territories belonging to him received the right to collect taxes and taxes, used the supreme judicial power and was the leader of the military militia convened on his territory. Unable to prevent this process, the state legalized it with special letters, according to which the immune lands were no longer subject to the counts. This practice, which became widespread under the Carolingians, began, however, as early as the time of the Merovingians. In addition, after the judicial reform of Charlemagne, free peasants were deprived of an active role in the court, so they could not prevent the strengthening of the magnates through the state judiciary. "The freedom of these people ceases to imply full rights." Often they united and revolted, however, this was ineffective, and they could not stop the "offensive" of the magnates. Charles in many of his capitularies prescribed not to allow the oppression of the peasants, however, this did not have the desired effect. If we talk about the economy associated with the processes described above, then during the reign of Charles - from the end of the 8th to the middle of the 9th century, the trend of economic growth was prevalent, as evidenced by the existence of excess products on large estates that were sold on the market, which is confirmed by a certain revival of those who had the Roman roots of cities, compared to their decline during the Late Roman Empire. The number of mints increased several times, which prompted Charles to limit the right of cities to mint coins. The growth of the money supply indicates a large scale of trade.

Connecting with the issue of land, on the orders of Charles, swamps were drained, forests were cut down, monasteries and cities were built, as well as magnificent palaces and churches (for example, in Aachen, Ingelheim).

Started in 793, the construction of a canal between Rednitz and Altmühl, which would connect the Rhine and Danube, the North and Black Seas, remained unfinished.

In 794, on the site of the thermal resort of the Celts and Romans in Aachen, Charles began the construction of a huge palace complex, completed in 798. Having first turned into the winter residence of Charles, Aachen gradually became a permanent residence, and from 807 - the permanent capital of the empire.

Carl strengthened the denier, which began to weigh 1.7 grams. Charles's fame spread far beyond his realm; embassies from foreign lands often appeared at his court, such as the embassy of Harun al-Rashid in 798.

The cultural aspirations of Charles were connected with politics - the culture of the Frankish state had to correspond to the name "empire". Karl himself was very educated for his, in many ways still barbaric time: “Not content with only his native speech, he tried to learn foreign languages. He studied Latin in such a way that he usually spoke it as if in his native language, but in Greek he understood more than he said."

Cultural reforms began with the establishment of a single canonical text of the Bible, and were generally carried out in alliance with the church.

Charlemagne purposefully encouraged secular culture, inviting philologists, architects, musicians and astronomers from all over the empire, as well as from Ireland and England, to his capital Aachen. Under the guidance of the great Anglo-Saxon scholar Alcuin, who was actually the “minister of education” of the empire for Charles (in 796, having retired from the court, he became the abbot of Tours), and with the participation of such famous figures as Theodulf, Paul the Deacon, Eingard and many others (all of them were part of the informal "Palace Academy") actively revived the education system, which received the name of the Carolingian Renaissance.

Karl himself took an active part in the work of the academy he founded: on his initiative, the correct text of the Bible was compiled; the monarch collected ancient German legends and songs (the collection, unfortunately, is almost lost); he instructed scholars to compile the grammar of his native Frankish language (this command was not carried out).

Under him, the study of classical Latin was revived, annalism was encouraged, and a whole stream of imitative poetry poured out from the pen of talented courtiers. Charles himself took grammar lessons from Alcuin and began compiling a grammar of the Germanic language. He also worked on correcting the texts of the Gospels and already in his advanced years tried to learn the difficult art of calligraphy (the mention of this fact in Eingard's biography of Karl was the basis for the false idea that he allegedly could not write). The collection of traditional short German heroic poems ordered by him, unfortunately, has not been preserved. Everywhere, new schools were opened at monasteries and churches, and provision was made for the education of the children of the poor. Under the leadership of Alcuin, scriptoria (rooms for correspondence and storage of manuscripts) were revived or established in the monasteries, where a magnificent font called "Carolingian minuscule" was used for correspondence, and copying was carried out at such a rapid pace that the lion's share of the entire heritage of antiquity has come down to us through the efforts of precisely that era. The impulse given to learning by Charlemagne continued for a full century after his death.

Foreign policy of Charlemagne

Of all the wars that Charles waged, he was the first to undertake the Aquitanian, begun by his father, but not finished. Charles could end this war quickly, even during the life of his brother Carloman. And Karl completed, thanks to endurance and constancy, with an excellent end what he planned to do.

Having put things in order in Aquitaine and ended that war, Charles, heeding the requests and entreaties of the bishop of the city of Rome Adrian, undertook a war against the Lombards. This war had been started even earlier with great difficulty (at the humble request of Pope Stephen) by Charles's father. However, at that time the war against the king was started and ended very quickly. Charles, having started the war, completed it no earlier than he accepted the surrender of King Desiderius, tired of a long siege, his son Adalgiz, on whom the hopes of everyone seemed to be turned, forced him to leave not only the kingdom, but even Italy. He returned everything taken from the Romans, suppressed Ruodgaz, the ruler of the duchy of Friul, who plotted a coup, subjugated all of Italy to his power and installed his son Pepin as king at the head of conquered Italy.

For Charles, who entered Italy, crossing the Alps and overcoming impassable places, mountain ranges and rocks rising to the sky was very difficult.

So, the end of that war was the conquest of Italy: King Desiderius was banished into eternal exile, his son Adalgiz was removed from Italy, and the property taken by the Lombard kings was returned to the ruler of the Roman church, Adrian.

After the end of that war, the Saxon war began again, which seemed already completed. None of the wars begun by the people of the Franks was so long, terrible and requiring so much effort, for the Saxons, who, like almost all peoples living in Germany, are warlike by nature, devoted to the worship of demons and are opponents of our religion, did not consider it impious to violate, nor transgress both divine and human laws. There were other reasons why not a day passed without breaking the peace, since the borders and the Saxons almost everywhere adjoined on the plain, except in a few places where large forests and wedged cliffs of mountains separated the fields of both by a reliable border. Otherwise, murders, robberies and fires would not be slow to reappear there either. The Franks were so angry that, in order not to endure any more inconvenience, they decided that it was worth starting an open war against them. That war was started and fought for thirty-three years with great courage on both sides, but with more damage to the Saxons than to the Franks. It could have ended sooner if not for the perfidy of the Saxons.

It is difficult to say how many times the vanquished surrendered, promised that they would follow orders, gave hostages, sent by them without delay, received ambassadors sent to them. And several times they were so subdued and weakened that they even promised to turn to the Christian religion and leave the custom of worshiping demons. But as many times they promised to do it, as many times they broke their promises. But the strong spirit of the king and his constant constancy, both under unfavorable and favorable circumstances, could not be defeated by the fickleness of the Saxons and were not exhausted by the undertakings undertaken. Charles did not allow those who did something like this to get away from punishment. Charles himself took revenge for treachery and appointed them a well-deserved punishment, himself standing at the head of the army, or sent his counts. It was believed that the war, which had been waged for so many years, ended under the condition put forward by the king and accepted by the Saxons: the Saxons, having rejected the veneration of demons and leaving their fatherly rites, accept the sacraments of the Christian faith and religion and, having united with the Franks, form a single people with them.

In the course of that war, although it dragged on for a very long time, Charles himself faced the enemy in battle no more than twice: once at a mountain called Osneggi, in a place called Teothmelly, and the second time near the river Haza. In those two battles, the enemies were so crushed and completely defeated that they did not dare to challenge the king, nor to oppose him with their advance, unless they were in some place protected by fortifications. In that war, many who held the highest posts, both from the Frankish nobility and from the nobility of the Saxons, were killed. And although the war ended in the thirty-third year, in the course of it, in various parts of the country, so many other most serious wars arose against the Franks, which the king masterfully waged, that, considering them, it is difficult to decide what in Charles should be more surprised - steadfastness in difficulties or his luck. For he began the Saxon war two years before the Italian, and did not cease to wage it, and none of the wars that were fought anywhere else was stopped or suspended at any stage because of difficulties. Since Charles, the greatest of all the kings then ruling the peoples, who excelled everyone in prudence and greatness of soul, never retreated before difficulties and was not afraid of the dangers of those wars that he undertook or waged. On the contrary, he knew how to accept and lead each undertaking in accordance with its nature, not retreating in a difficult situation and not succumbing to the false flattery of luck in a favorable situation.

Thus, during a long and almost uninterrupted war with the Saxons, he, having placed garrisons along the frontier in proper places, went to Spain only after he had made the best preparations for war. Having overcome the gorge of the Pyrenees, he achieved the surrender of all the cities and castles that he approached, and returned with an unharmed army. On the way back, on the Pyrenees itself, he had to experience the treachery of the Basques. The Basques, setting up an ambush and starting a battle, killed everyone and plundered the convoy, and then scattered in different directions. In this case, the ease of armament and the nature of the area in which the case took place helped the Basques; on the contrary, heavy weapons, and the ruggedness of the place made the Franks unequal in everything to the Basques. In this battle, with many others, the steward Eggihard, the palace manager Anselm and Ruodland, the prefect of the Breton March, died.

Charles also conquered the Britons, who lived in the West, on one of the outskirts of Gaul, on the ocean, and did not obey his orders. Sending an army to them, he forced them to hand over the hostages and promise that they would do what he ordered them to do. After that, Charles again invaded Italy with an army and, passing through Rome, attacked Capua, the city of Campania. Having set up a camp there, he began to threaten the Benevents with war if they did not surrender - Aragis, their duke sent his sons Rumold and Grimold to meet the king with large gifts. He invited Karl to accept his sons as hostages, and he promised that he would carry out the order together with his people, except that he would be obliged to appear before the eyes of the king.

The king, after that, paid more attention to the benefit to the people than to the inflexibility of the duke. He accepted the hostages offered to him and agreed, as a great favor, not to force Aragis to appear before him. Charles left the younger son of the duke as a hostage, but returned the eldest to his father, and, sending ambassadors in all directions so that they took an oath of allegiance from Aragis and the people, he went to Rome. After spending several days there venerating the holy places, he returned to Gaul.

The Bavarian War, which began suddenly, then ended quickly. It was caused at the same time by the arrogance and carelessness of the Duke of Tassilon, who, succumbing to the persuasion of his wife (the daughter of King Desiderius, who wanted to avenge her father's expulsion with the help of her husband), entered into an alliance with the Huns, the former neighbors of the Bavarians from the east, and tried not only not to fulfill the orders of the king , but also to provoke Charles to war. The king, whose pride was wounded, could not endure the obstinacy of Thassilon, therefore, having summoned soldiers from everywhere, Charles set off with a large army to the Lech River with the intention of attacking Bavaria. That river separated the Bavarians from the Alamans. Before invading the province, Charles, having set up camp on the banks of the river, decided through ambassadors to find out about the intentions of the duke. But he, considering that stubbornness would not benefit either him or his people, with a plea personally appeared before the king, providing the required hostages, including his son Theodon. Moreover, he swore an oath that he would not give in to any incitement to rebellion against the royal authority. So, that war, which seemed to be a long one, was put to the quickest end. However, later Thassilon was called to the king without permission to return back; the administration of the province which he owned was entrusted not to the next duke, but to several earls.

After those unrest were settled, another war was started with the Slavs, who are usually called Wilts. The reason for the war was that the obodrites, who had once been allies of the Franks, were disturbed by the Wilts with frequent raids and could not be restrained by orders.

In just one campaign, which he himself led, Charles so defeated and tamed the Velatabs that later they believed that they should no longer refuse to obey the orders of the king.

Charles waged this war more cruelly than others, and with the longest preparations. Charles himself, however, conducted only one campaign in Pannonia, and ordered the rest of the campaigns to be carried out by his son Pepin, provincial prefects, as well as counts and even ambassadors. Only in the eighth year that war was finally completed, despite the fact that it was fought very decisively. How many battles were fought, how much blood was shed - evidence because Pannonnia became completely uninhabited, and the place where the kagan's residence was is now so deserted that there is no trace that people lived here. All the noble Huns died in that war, all their glory was cut short. All the money and treasures accumulated over a long time were captured by the Franks. In human memory, not a single war that arose against the Franks remained, in which the Franks would have been so enriched and increased their wealth. Only two of the noble Franks died then: Heirik, Duke of Friuli, was killed from an ambush in Liburgia by the townspeople of the seaside city of Tarsatica, and Herold, prefect of Bavaria in Pannonia, while he was building an army before the battle with the Huns. Otherwise, that war was bloodless for the Franks and had the most favorable end, although it dragged on for quite some time. After this war, the Saxon campaign also came to an end, corresponding to its duration. The Bohemian and Linoan wars that arose after this were not long. Each of them ended quickly, being conducted under the direction of Charles the Younger.

The last war was started against the Normans, called Danes. At first they engaged in piracy, then with the help of a large fleet they ravaged the coasts of Gaul and Germany. The Norman king Godfried hoped to rule all of Germany. Frisia, like Saxony, he considered only his provinces. He had already subjugated his Obodrite neighbors, making them his tributaries. Killed by his own bodyguard, he put an end to both his life and the war he unleashed.

Such were the wars waged by the king in various parts of the earth for 47 years. In those wars, he so thoroughly expanded the already large and powerful kingdom of the Franks, received from Pepin's father, that he added to it almost double the amount of land. Indeed, before the authority of the king of the Franks was subject only to that part of Gaul that lies between the Rhine, Leger and the Atlantic Ocean to the Balearic Sea; the part of Germany inhabited by the Franks, called the Eastern, which lies between Saxony and the rivers Danube, Rhine, and Sala, which separates the Turines and the Sorabs; in addition, the power of the kingdom of the Franks extended to the Alamans and Bavarians. Charles, in the wars mentioned, first subjugated Aquitaine, Vasconia, and the entire range of the Pyrenees up to the Iber River, which begins at the Navars and cuts through the most fertile fields of Spain, pouring into the Balearic Sea under the walls of the city of Dertosa. Then he annexed all of Italy, stretching for a thousand or more miles from Augusta Pretoria to southern Calabria, where, as the borders of the Greeks and the Benevents meet. Then he annexed Saxony, which is no small part of Germany, and is thought to be twice as wide as the part inhabited by the Franks, though perhaps equal in length; after that, both Pannonia, Dacia, located on the other side of the Danube, as well as Istria, Liburnia and Dalmacia, with the exception of coastal cities, which, as a result of friendship and the alliance concluded, Charles allowed the Emperor of Constantinople to own. Finally, he so pacified all the barbarian and savage peoples that inhabit Germany between the rivers Rhine, Visula, as well as the ocean and Danube (the peoples are almost similar in language, but differ greatly in customs and appearance), which made them tributaries. Among the latter are the most remarkable peoples: Velatabs, Sorabs, Obodrites, Bohemians; with them Charles fought in the war, and the rest, whose number is much larger, he accepted into submission without a fight.

He increased the glory of his reign also thanks to the friendship he made with some kings and peoples. Alphonse, king of Galicia and Asturias, he tied with such a close alliance that when he sent letters or ambassadors to Charles, he ordered himself to be called nothing more than "belonging to the king." He acquired such a disposition among the kings of the Scots, captivated by his generosity, that they called him nothing more than master, and themselves his subjects and slaves.

The collapse of the Empire of Charlemagne

The empire, created as a result of the conquest of weak tribes and nationalities by the Thracians, was an unstable state formation and fell apart shortly after the death of its founder.

The reasons for its collapse were the lack of economic and ethnic unity and the growth of the power of large feudal lords. The forcible unification of ethnically alien peoples could only be maintained under a strong central government.

Already during the life of Charlemagne, symptoms of its decline were outlined: the centralized control system began to degenerate into a personal seigneurial system, the counts were out of obedience. Separatism intensified in the outskirts.

The royal power was deprived of the former political support from the feudal nobility and did not have sufficient funds to continue the policy of conquest and even to retain the occupied territories. The free population was subjected to serfdom or fell into land dependence on the feudal lords and did not fulfill the former state, natural and military duties. Thus the king was deprived of material resources and military strength, while the feudal lords expanded their possessions and created their own troops from vassals. All this inevitably led to the collapse of the empire and feudal fragmentation.

In 817, at the request of the grandchildren of Charlemagne, the first section was made. But the ambitions remained unsatisfied, and a period of internecine wars began.

In 843, an agreement was concluded in Verdun on the division of the Empire of Charlemagne between his grandsons - Lothair (France and Northern Italy), Louis the German (East Frankish state) and Charles the Bald (West Frankish state).

By the beginning of the tenth century the imperial title lost its meaning and disappeared.